Younger children experience persistent symptoms following concussion

When most people think of concussion, the first type of patient that  comes to mind is a youth athlete. However, concussion is also common in early childhood, largely  due to kids’ naturally exploratory behavior as they experience and learn their world. A new study  from researchers at Nationwide Children’s Hospital finds that while a toddler’s concussion  experience is often different than an older child’s, symptoms can last just as long. 

The study, published today in Pediatrics, examined patients ages 6 months to 6 years, and found that  similar to older children and adults, about one fourth of children younger than six years of age who  experience a concussion will develop prolonged symptoms, which can affect learning and behavior later in childhood. 

“Because of their size differences and weaker muscles, young children are more likely to sustain a  brain injury,” said Sean Rose, MD, lead author of the study, pediatric neurologist and co-director of  the Complex Concussion Clinic at Nationwide Children’s. “This study helps emphasize that younger  children with a head injury should be appropriately evaluated to determine if treatments or other  services are needed.” 

Younger children sustain concussion mostly due to falls, as opposed to older children who are more  often injured in a sport setting. Because of their inability to report their own symptoms, traditional  concussion symptom scales can fail to detect them. Post-concussion symptoms can include  behavioral changes, excessive irritability, appetite changes, decreased social engagement,  stomachaches and increased dependence/clinginess. 

In school-aged children and adults with concussion, symptoms that last longer than one month are  considered Persisting Symptoms after Concussion (PSaC). This study adds – for the first time – knowledge about PSaC in younger children, although more research is needed to determine the  clinical infrastructure needed to assess and care for these children. 

Designing higher education for women balancing caregiving, work and learning

University of Phoenix College of Doctoral Studies announced the publication of “Engaging the Overextended: Designing Higher Education for Women Balancing Care, Work, and Learning,” a new white paper by Jessica Sylvester, Ed.D., MBA, Senior Manager of College Operations and associate faculty member at the University, and a research fellow with the University’s Center for Educational and Instructional Technology Research (CEITR). The paper examines how traditional higher education structures often assume uninterrupted time and predictable availability—conditions that don’t match the lived reality of women managing caregiving, employment and education simultaneously.  

Drawing on findings from the 2025 University of Phoenix Career Optimism Special Report™ Series: Moms in the Sandwich Generation and related research, Sylvester connects workforce pressures to higher education engagement and persistence. The white paper highlights that 59% of sandwich-generation moms report their combined roles have restricted professional growth, 51% have left a job due to caregiving conflicts, and 62% say maintaining a career feels like a luxury—constraints that shape whether learners can start, continue, or return to school.

“Engagement is a design problem, not a motivation problem,” said Sylvester. “When institutions build learning around real life—flexible time structures, authentic welcoming, recognition of lived expertise, and thoughtful AI-enabled support—women who are balancing care, work and learning can persist and succeed without having to choose between family and future.”

White paper focus: life-aligned design for modern adult learners

The paper outlines practical, thoughtful approaches higher education leaders and policymakers can implement to better serve overextended learners, including:

• Reimagining time and engagement structures to support asynchronous participation and nonlinear progress
• Treating belonging as academic infrastructure through cohort models, mentoring networks and relational teaching practices
• Expanding stackable and modular learning pathways that translate into career mobility in real time
• Recognizing experiential learning through Credit for Prior Learning (CPL) as tool for parity that reduces time-to-completion and cost
• Using AI thoughtfully to expand capacity, including re-entry supports, just-in-time help and reduced administrative burden.

The full white paper is available on the University of Phoenix Career Institute® webpage or on the Research Hub.

How early-career English language teachers can grow professionally

Researchers suggest diverse learning experiences, mentors, and opportunities for reflection support the professional development of early-career teachers

English has become a global language, dominating various sectors from science to tourism. One major way to learn English is through TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) teachers. However, early-career TESOL teachers face challenges related to confidence in their abilities, support from schools, and the status of foreign language teachers, making teaching more difficult. So, it is critical to understand their professional aspirations and struggles, as well as how they can take responsibility for their teaching in challenging school environments, to effectively support their growth.

Moreover, their professional growth is not a singular event; instead, it occurs over time. Taking this into consideration, a research team led by Professor Yoshiyuki Nakata from the Faculty of Global Communications at Doshisha University, Japan, traced and analyzed the experiences of early-career TESOL teachers in Japan across their primary and secondary schooling, university studies, teacher training, and the early stages of their teaching careers. The team included Professor Xuesong (Andy) Gao from the School of Education at the University of New South Wales, and Mr. Takahiro Miyazaki from Kobe Municipal Fukiai High School, Japan. Their study was published on January 14, 2026, in TESOL Quarterly.

Highlighting the motivation behind the study, Prof. Nakata says, “Amid declining interest among students in becoming English teachers and growing attrition rates among teachers, we felt it was necessary to understand the learning processes and challenges faced by student teachers and early-career teachers.”

To achieve this, researchers collected detailed data from three early-career secondary TESOL teachers in two stages. First, they used the reflective reports submitted by the teachers in their fourth year of the English Teacher Licensure Program. These reports contained reflections on their past learning experiences and the inspiring teachers they had in primary and secondary school. Second, an online focus group discussion was conducted where teachers reflected on their growth and struggles after becoming teachers and their future aspirations.

A detailed analysis revealed that participants’ learning experiences in primary and secondary school largely influenced their commitment to teaching. For example, one participant, Fuga (name changed), had meaningful encounters with English in high school through movies, songs, and a study abroad program. This dramatically changed his perception of English, from a mere school subject to an important communication tool. He also had three supportive teachers at different educational stages, who treated students as whole human beings and promoted practical ways to learn English. This greatly influenced Fuga’s decision to choose a teaching career. Importantly, these experiences allowed him to maintain his motivation despite being unable to deliver lessons in his ideal way at his current school.

Researchers also found that when participants had experienced teachers as mentors in their current schools, it significantly impacted their professional development. Another participant, Saki (name changed), for instance, believed that students felt comfortable talking to her because of her young age, not because they trusted her. But she wanted to be a trustworthy teacher. By observing and interacting with senior teachers, she learned the importance of understanding and caring for each student to earn their trust. So, she proactively engaged with struggling students before and after class, helping her become the teacher she aims to be.

Furthermore, participants also developed as both learners and teachers through their university and study-abroad experiences. For example, another participant, Yae (name changed), found it joyful to express herself in English and realized that there are diverse ways to learn English while she was studying abroad at a university. She also viewed challenges as learning opportunities, which was further reinforced during her teaching practicum. So, in her current school, although she struggles to keep up with other teachers’ pace and style, she strives to add her personal essence to her teaching.

These findings highlight the need for supportive networks for early-career teachers and opportunities for them to reflect on their professional development. “New teachers could benefit from openly discussing their challenges, particularly with senior teachers who can relate to their past experiences. Teacher training sessions should bring together aspiring teachers with diverse learning experiences and school backgrounds to promote collaborative learning. Ultimately, we hope our study encourages students, teachers, educators, and researchers across the TESOL community to support one another,” concludes Prof. Nakata.

Effective Reading Interventions for Middle School Students: New Toolkit

The Institute of Education Sciences released the Providing Reading Interventions for Students in Middle School (PRISMS) Toolkit. The toolkit is designed to help educators put into practice recommendations from the What Works Clearinghouse practice guide Providing Reading Interventions for Students in Grades 4–9. Recognizing the need to support literacy in middle school contexts, the toolkit is aimed at educators providing reading intervention to students in grades 6–8. The toolkit includes: Educator implementation tools that help educators self-assess their current implementation of the practice guide recommendations, identify areas for growth, and set goals for implementing the practice guide recommendations. Five online professional learning modules that build educators’ knowledge of the practice guide recommendations and support classroom implementation. Each module includes a description of the steps to implement the practice guide recommendations, videos modeling the instructional routines, classroom implementation tools and resources, and a participant workbook to plan for implementation in the classroom. Professional learning community (PLC) facilitator resources that help facilitators to organize and lead ten PLC sessions. During these ten sessions, teams of educators use the educator implementation tools, review what they learn in the professional learning modules, and plan for implementation. Resources for instructional leaders, toolkit coordinators, and district leaders that help them plan for and support implementation in their schools. Together, these resources provide practical, evidence-based strategies to support educators in selecting and implementing effective reading interventions for grade 6–8 students with reading difficulties and improve student learning outcomes. To access the toolkit, please visit https://ies.ed.gov/regional-educational-laboratories-toolkits. *****

The Contribution of College Majors to Gender and Racial Earnings Differences

 Gender and racial/ethnic gaps in labor market earnings remain large, even among college-goers. Cross-gender and race/ethnic differences in choice of and returns to college major are potentially important contributors. Following Texas public high school graduates for up to 20 years through college and the labor market, this study assesses gender and racial differences in college major choices and the consequences of these choices. 

Women and underrepresented minorities are less likely than men, Whites, and Asians to major in high earning fields like business, economics, engineering, and computer science, however we also show that they experience lower returns to these majors. 

Differences in major-specific returns relative to liberal arts explain about one quarter of the gender, White-Black, and White-Hispanic (but not White-Asian) earnings gaps among four-year college students and become larger contributors to earnings gaps than differential major distributions as workers age. 

The study presents suggestive evidence that differences in occupation choices within field are a key driver of the differences in returns across groups. The work shines light on the roles that college major choice and returns by gender and race contribute to inequality.

Also see 

College Major Choice, Payoffs, and Gender Gaps

This paper studies how college major choices shape earnings and fertility outcomes. Using administrative data that link students' preferences, random assignment to majors, and post-college outcomes, we estimate the causal pecuniary and non-pecuniary returns to different fields of study. 

The authors document substantial heterogeneity in these returns across majors and show that such variation helps explain gender gaps in labor market outcomes: women place greater weight on balancing career and family in their major choices, and these preference differences account for about 30% of the gender earnings gap among college graduates. 

The authors find that gender quotas in high-return fields can significantly reduce representation and earnings gaps with minimal impacts on efficiency and aggregate fertility.

Early intervention helps most autistic children acquire spoken language

After receiving evidence-based early interventions, roughly two-thirds of non-speaking kids with autism speak single words, and approximately half develop more complex language, according to a new study led by researchers at Drexel University’s A.J. Drexel Autism Institute. The findings, which offer insights that might help improve success rates for the kids who remain non-speaking or minimally speaking (e.g. not combining words to form short phrases) after therapy, were recently published in the Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology.

About one in 31 kids in the United States are autistic, according to a 2025 CDC report, a number that has risen in recent years due to improved screening, more understanding and awareness. About one in three kids with autism are estimated to be nonspeaking. Although spoken language can vary considerably among kids with autism, those who do not gain spoken language beyond preschool years are at increased risk of disabilities later in life. Therefore, language skills are often a major target for early child development.

In the first large scale study to look at how many kids do not experience these gains, and the factors influencing success, the team used data across multiple studies on 707 autistic preschoolers who completed different types of evidence-based early interventions from six months to two years for at least 10 hours per week designed to teach spoken language, among other skills.
The participants who did not see success from intervention started with lower scores in cognitive, social, adaptive and motor imitation measures compared to their peers who developed spoken language. The team also found an association between development of spoken language and modifiable intervention factors, such as age at intervention start and intervention duration. The researchers suggest that these interventions are not one size fits all and individuals should be monitored for progress with adjustments made periodically to help language development.

These interventions remain evidence-supported ways of teaching language to nonspeaking kids with autism, authors say, noting that about half of the kids who had single or no words at the start were combining words by the conclusion of the intervention.

“When parents ask me if their child should do these interventions to gain spoken language, the answer after doing this study is still yes,” said Giacomo Vivanti, PhD, an associate professor and leader of Early Detection and Intervention in the Autism Institute at Drexel’s Dornsife School of Public Health. “What our study is telling us is that even when we’re implementing practices that are evidence-based, some children remain behind. So, we should carefully monitor the response of each child and see what to add or change to tailor therapy for the individual as needed.”

The researchers found that duration of the intervention, rather than intensity of the intervention, was associated with outcomes in the children who are nonverbal. Therefore, it is possible that, instead of packing in as many hours as possible working with a child 20-40 hours each week to facilitate language in a therapy room, more success might be achieved by doing the therapy for a longer term for more opportunities to practice skills, but with fewer hours per week.

“It’s imperative to track and monitor progress, even when the therapy meets your evidence-based practice criteria,” Vivanti said. “You need to monitor and be ready to take action, and adjust the strategies that you are using, the goals that you are targeting and the duration of the intervention to meet the needs of each child. For some children the ‘standard’
version of an intervention might be sufficient to support the acquisition of spoken language. For others, maybe a longer duration or more focus on preverbal skills that are foundational to communication is appropriate.”

“For young autistic children, often the highest priority is figuring out ways of supporting their communication, both their understanding and use of spoken language as well as other important behaviors, such as gestures,” said co-author Catherine Lord, PhD, distinguished professor at UCLA. “Many well-established interventions have reported improvements in test scores and parent report measures. However, it is important to remember that not all children learn at the same rate, and to be sure that we know when and how to shift strategies when progress isn't happening or is occurring in such small steps that it is hard to see.” 

As suggested in earlier studies, the researchers found that children who imitate more through motor imitation, such as encouraging children to join when people are clapping hands, nodding or imitating other gestures, were more likely to obtain spoken language.

“Those nonspeaking prerequisites of communication may help create infrastructure for spoken language,” Vivanti said. “Imitating what others are doing may help may them later to imitate what people are saying, and from there using language to express their thoughts.”

The team observed that the type of intervention used made little difference in language learning outcomes, despite underlying differences between these options in orientation, reasons why they should work and theories about what causes children to develop spoken language.

As this was a retrospective study, methodology varied among interventions, such as using different types of sites, such as a home, in a clinical practice, etc. Additionally, children were followed only for the duration of the intervention.

Despite these limitations, this study fills gaps in the understanding of spoken language status and stands as a rare large-scale commitment to share insights among many autism research institutions on a single study.

“Often scholars are weary about sharing intervention data and examine children who are not showing an optimal response to their interventions, especially for interventions that are already established as ‘evidence-based,’” said Vivanti. “This paper shows a willingness in the early intervention community to collaborate on data and learn more about how to help all children.”

The interventions in the study included the “Early Start Denver Model,” which is designed to help participants grow skills in many areas (including language) by engaging the child in joint play routines; other “Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions,” which similarly embed teaching within the child’s preferred activities and routines; “Early Intensive Behavioral Interventions” that use structured, adult-led teaching practices like discrete trial training, which breaks up skills into smaller parts for better learning; and TEACCH which focuses on changing an environment to adapt to learning preferences.
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Journal

Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology

DOI

10.1080/15374416.2025.2579286 

We need to listen to the school children tell us what their diagnosed ADHD feels like

 Some people claim that ADHD is a modern invention and that too many people are being diagnosed with it. Others believe the disorder is real, with major consequences for those who have it. Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) professor and school researcher Marit Uthus is certain of at least one thing:

“We need to listen to the school children who can tell us what their diagnosed ADHD feels like, both physically and mentally. After all, they are the ones with first-hand experience. If they are given the chance to speak, the rest of us can better understand what they need in order to learn and participate in school on equal terms with everyone else,” said Uthus.

Autonomy in learning

Along with psychologist and researcher Audhild Løhre, Uthus has recently conducted an interview study focusing on two school children: ‘Sofie’ and ‘Benjamin’.

Both students have ADHD. The researchers followed the pupils and their teachers over the course of one school year during which their school introduced a new model for adapted education. Both pupils describe how they experienced gaining an entirely new sense of autonomy. One day a week, they are free to choose what they want to learn and to organize their schoolwork as they think best.

The study is small, but the researchers believe it introduces important and genuine experiences directly into the wider discussion about ADHD and inclusion in Norwegian schools, Uthus said.

An extra challenging form of learning

Because ‘Sofie’ and ‘Benjamin’ have inattentive ADHD, autonomous or self-regulated learning can be especially challenging. This type of ADHD triggers precisely those brain processes that are taxing for people with the diagnosis. This includes receiving and processing internal and external stimuli, and maintaining focus and self-regulation.

“Self-determination in learning means acting in accordance with oneself – or one’s own will. And when you become inattentive in your learning – when your thoughts slip beyond your own control – things don’t work. This is precisely where the challenge of self-determined learning lies for these pupils,” explained Uthus.

A double-edged sword

The school researcher describes their situation as a double-edged sword, because like everyone else, both ‘Sofie’ and ‘Benjamin’ like to make their own decisions.

Despite the challenges they face, they are motivated by their teacher’s trust and the opportunity to act autonomously in their own learning one day a week.

Thoughts that end up in the wrong place

Sofie describes her experience with ADHD like this:  “(...) it is as if my thoughts wander around in my head and end up in the wrong place. They then start to get all jumbled up in the very place where I should be concentrating. “(..) Once I’ve lost concentration, it’s like I’m in my own world.”

At the same time, the 11-year-old says, “When I get to decide for myself, I feel happy!”

She likes being able to decide what works best for her, such as choosing whether to tackle the hardest or the easiest schoolwork first.

“I want to decide for myself what to do, and it’s nice to be able to do that,” Sofie. said

Lose concentration – find motivation

Everything happens in collaboration with the teacher, but the pupils take the leading role. The starting point is that we all have an innate need to make our own decisions and influence what happens in our lives. When we experience tasks as meaningful and are able to act according to our own wishes and interests, that increases both motivation to learn and effort.

“So, even though ‘Sofie’ experiences her concentration slipping away, she manages to find new energy to keep thinking. In doing so, she compensates for what she loses. She replaces it with motivation to complete a task even when she is tired, finds it difficult or thinks it is boring. She is motivated by the good feeling of completing what she started,” Uthus said.

Harnessing the power of self-determination

Uthus believes that this type of real-life experience brings important new insights and meaningful depth to theories in educational research. If we view self-determination as a power we all have and can use to make learning more enjoyable, we can open up new opportunities for this group of pupils.

The study ‘Students with inattention and their experiences of autonomy in learning activities: an interview study with two students and their teachers’ was recently published in Frontiers in Psychology.

Uthus says the study focuses specifically on a few individuals’ experiences, and one that is worth exploring further.

Children with ADHD struggle at school

Uthus has spent many years studying inclusion in schools. This autumn, a different study from OsloMet found that only about half of children with ADHD thrive at school. Pupils who spend more than half of their school day being taught outside of their regular classroom community particularly tend to struggle.

“I think this is linked to the fact that school is an increasingly pressured environment to grow up in. Adaptation and support provided by teachers regarding pupils’ self-determination is crucial in all of this. Research suggests that these pupils are not receiving the support they need – specifically the support that takes place within the learning community of the classroom,” said Uthus.

ADHD does not mean learning challenges

She emphasizes that these are children with the same abilities and resources as everyone else. They are capable of achieving anything.

“ADHD is not a challenge associated with learning – but rather a challenge associated with attention. Being taken out of the classroom, because there is a lack of support in the classroom, feels like an unfair punishment. I believe it is important to stress that this is not necessarily due to poor teaching, but rather the lack of resources in today’s schools. We could go on endlessly discussing whether too many children are being diagnosed with ADHD, and what the reasons for this might be.  The point is that this debate leads nowhere for the individuals who need help,” explained Uthus.

Missing the point

Uthus believes that the debate around ADHD sometimes goes off track, with arguments over whether the diagnosis is real or socially constructed. She feels we pay too little attention to the experiences of the children and young people actually living with the diagnosis, and that there should be greater focus on how their learning environments are structured.

“Children and young people spend a lot of their waking hours at school. Their time there is a major determinant in how they will fare later on in life: in their future careers, in being part of society and in gaining a better quality of life – and this is why adaptation is so important. It is about engaging with pupils more effectively and getting to know them. Letting them experience that they are good enough as they are and that they are appreciated for all their differences,” said Uthus.

Brains work differently

“We could go on endlessly discussing whether too many children are being diagnosed with ADHD, and what the reasons for this might be.  The point is that this debate leads nowhere for the individuals who need help. If we instead focus on their experiences, it becomes less important whether ADHD is a real diagnosis or not. It is about inequality. We all have brains that work differently, and each of us falls somewhere along that spectrum,” concluded Uthus.

Reference:
Marit Uthus, Audhild Løhre: ‘Students with inattention and their experiences of autonomy in learning activities: an interview study with two students and their teachers’. DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1624279

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