What is dyslexia?

Dyslexia is a language-based learning difference that results in difficulty with reading that is not expected in the context of the individual’s overall cognitive ability and educational background.

What is the prevalence of dyslexia?

The estimated prevalence of dyslexia varies widely depending on how it is defined, with estimates ranging from 3–7% all the way up to 20% of the population.

How do most children learn to read?

Most children need to learn to read through rote instruction, unlike learning to speak, which occurs organically through mimicking parents.

Are people with dyslexia able to reason verbally and non-verbally?

Yes, individuals with dyslexia struggle with reading and spelling but not with verbal and non-verbal reasoning.

What is Direct Instruction?

Direct Instruction is the most effective reading program, which emphasizes phonics instruction through carefully planned lessons designed around small learning increments.

Is phonics the only ingredient of an effective reading program?

No, phonics is a necessary rather than sufficient ingredient of an effective reading program.

The Science of Reading

What is the most common underlying cause of dyslexia?

While there is no single, universally accepted underlying cause, most dyslexic people struggle to read in large part due to poor phonological decoding abilities.

How does dyslexia affect a child’s education?

If a child falls significantly behind in reading due to dyslexia, they are subject to many adverse outcomes downstream that are unrelated to their innate intellectual capabilities. Their vocabulary and knowledge base may not expand as quickly as their classmates, and they are liable to fall behind in other subjects.

Looking for a dyslexia test? Check out Polygon — we offer remote evaluations and support for dyslexia, ADHD, and other learning differences.

Learn more about dyslexia

• Dyslexia Explained
• What Is Dyslexia?
• Dyslexia Symptoms
• Dyslexia Testing

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a condition that affects both children and adults. Recent studies suggest that about one-third of children with ADHD still have it as adults, while 65% still experience significant symptoms. However, some adults with ADHD were not diagnosed during childhood and may remain undiagnosed in adulthood for several reasons.

One reason is that hyperactivity and impulsivity tend to decrease naturally as people grow older, so adults with ADHD are more likely to show symptoms of inattention instead. Additionally, environmental demands during adulthood vary widely, which can make it challenging for people with ADHD to cope. Some jobs may be more ADHD-friendly, while others may require more attention and focus than an educational setting.

The symptoms of ADHD can be hard to identify in adults, as they may have developed coping mechanisms over time. Adults with ADHD may experience restlessness, excessive talking, and a need to use drugs or alcohol to relax. They are also more likely to have mood disorders, health problems, divorce, and poor career outcomes. However, many adults with ADHD can function at high levels with significant effort, although it can cause anxiety or depression.

Diagnosing ADHD in adults is difficult, but there are effective treatment options available. A combination of cognitive behavior therapy and stimulant medication is the most effective treatment for managing adult ADHD. Therapy is especially crucial for newly diagnosed adults who may have experienced emotional distress and interpersonal dysfunction due to untreated ADHD over the years.

Looking for an ADHD test? Check out Polygon — we offer remote evaluations and support for ADHD, dyslexia, and other learning differences.

Learn more about ADHD

• ADHD Explained
• What is ADHD?
• ADHD Medication
• ADHD and the Medicalization of Childhood
• Adult ADHD
• ADHD in Women
• ADHD and Eating Disorders

Generative AI has the potential to revolutionize the way children engage with storytelling, offering a range of benefits such as enhanced creativity, improved writing skills, and inclusive education. However, there are also risks and ethical concerns that need to be addressed to ensure the safe and responsible use of AI in children’s education. In this article, we will discuss the advantages and challenges of generative AI-powered storytelling tools, as well as some popular apps and future expectations in this field.

Advantages of Generative AI for Children’s Storytelling

Enhancing creativity: Generative AI can foster children’s imagination by providing unique story ideas and characters, inspiring them to think outside the box and explore new ideas. By working with AI-generated content, children can create richer and more diverse stories, leading to a more engaging and dynamic learning experience.

Improving writing skills: AI can provide instant feedback on grammar, spelling, and sentence structure, helping children refine their writing abilities and develop strong communication skills. This real-time guidance can form the foundation for future learning and support highly personalized education.

Personalization: Generative AI can adapt to a child’s interests and preferences, creating customized story prompts that engage and motivate young learners. This tailored approach can make storytelling more enjoyable and appealing for children.

Inclusive education: AI can play a crucial role in supporting children with learning difficulties or language barriers by offering tailored assistance for developing their storytelling skills. This support can be invaluable in ensuring all children have the opportunity to develop their creative abilities, including those with visual-motor difficulties who might otherwise struggle with writing.

Challenges and Ethical Concerns in AI-Powered Storytelling for Children

Over-reliance on AI: One major concern is the risk of children becoming too dependent on AI-generated content, potentially stifling their creativity and originality. Excessive reliance on AI assistance may lead to a decline in innovative capabilities and limit opportunities for social learning and feedback from teachers, parents, or peers.

Ethical issues and harmful content: AI-generated stories may unintentionally include inappropriate, biased, or offensive content, potentially exposing children to harmful ideas. Ensuring children’s safety when using AI tools for storytelling requires vigilance and ongoing improvements in AI models.

Privacy and data security: AI applications that require access to user data can raise concerns about privacy and data security. Developers must prioritize robust data privacy measures to protect children’s information.

Popular Apps for AI-Powered Children’s Storytelling

OpenAI GPT-4: This powerful AI tool can brainstorm stories based on user prompts and can be used in conjunction with Whisper AI for an immersive voice-activated experience.

Midjourney and Storybird: The integration of Midjourney with Storybird (a set of professional illustrations for educational purposes) allows users to tweak their stories by simply providing a prompt, making it easy for children to create visually engaging narratives.

Replika: Designed as an AI companion for listening and talking, Replika can be adapted for children to help them build their own stories in a more interactive and immersive way.

Future Expectations in AI-Powered Storytelling for Children

Personalization: AI tools will become more adept at understanding individual children’s preferences, learning styles, and skill levels, providing tailored support that caters to their unique needs. This personalized approach will help engage and motivate children in the storytelling experience.

Collaboration: AI will facilitate collaboration between children, teachers, and parents, promoting a more interactive and engaging learning experience. By incorporating multiple perspectives and ideas, the storytelling process will foster creativity and critical thinking among children.

Ethical and safety improvements: Developers should continue refining AI models to minimize biases and ensure age-appropriate content, as well as implementing robust data privacy measures to better protect children’s information. These advancements will contribute to safer and more responsible use of AI in children’s education.

Integration with other learning tools: AI-powered storytelling applications will likely be incorporated into broader educational platforms, offering a more comprehensive and cohesive learning experience for children. By blending storytelling with other aspects of learning, these integrated platforms will provide children with a well-rounded education, nurturing their creativity and problem-solving skills across various subjects.

Conclusion

As generative AI continues to advance, its potential to reshape children’s storytelling experiences and education is immense. By harnessing the benefits of AI, such as enhanced creativity, improved writing skills, personalization, and inclusive education, we can create a more engaging and dynamic learning environment for young minds.

However, it is crucial to address the challenges and ethical concerns associated with AI-powered storytelling, including the risk of over-reliance, exposure to harmful content, and privacy and data security issues. By doing so, we can ensure the safe and responsible use of AI in children’s education.

As developers and educators work together to create AI-powered storytelling tools that are safe, personalized, and collaborative, the future of children’s education can become more exciting, interactive, and rewarding. By integrating AI-driven storytelling with other learning tools, we can provide children with a comprehensive, well-rounded education that nurtures their creativity and problem-solving skills while covering a wide range of subjects.

Need assistance with your child’s learning challenges? Check out Polygon — we offer remote evaluations and support for ADHD, dyslexia, and other learning differences.

More From Polygon:

• ADHD Explained
• Dyscalculia Explained
• Dyslexia Explained
• Dysgraphia Explained

Dyslexia is a learning difference that affects between 3–20% of the population, but the exact prevalence is unclear due to varying definitions. It is best defined as a language-based learning difference that results in difficulty with reading that is not expected in the context of the individual’s overall cognitive ability and educational background.

Learning to read requires rote instruction, unlike learning to speak which happens naturally. While most children learn to read in school, individuals with dyslexia are far more likely to perform below their potential. This is why early diagnosis, accommodations, and effective interventions are essential.

People with dyslexia struggle to read in large part due to poor phonological decoding abilities. English words are broken down into phonemes, which are small linguistic units that differentiate words from each other. People with dyslexia struggle to automate the decoding of phonemes, which is essential for reading and spelling. As a result, people with dyslexia tend to read slowly because they have not automated the decoding process.

Over 40 years of research and meta-analyses demonstrate that Direct Instruction is the most effective reading program, with most other programs being ineffective. Direct Instruction emphasizes phonics instruction through carefully planned lessons designed around small learning increments. Phonics is a necessary component of an effective reading program, but a program that includes phonics instruction does not necessarily mean it is effective or evidence-based.

Early diagnosis of dyslexia is essential to prevent an educational snowball effect that can sabotage a child’s intellectual development. Children who fall significantly behind in reading are subject to many adverse outcomes downstream that are unrelated to their innate intellectual capabilities. They may struggle to expand their vocabulary and knowledge base as quickly as their peers and fall behind in other subjects. Furthermore, the child may become frustrated with school, become disruptive, and develop mental health issues. This is why effective reading interventions, such as Direct Instruction, are crucial for the academic success of children with dyslexia.

Looking for a dyslexia test? Check out Polygon — we offer remote evaluations and support for dyslexia, ADHD, and other learning differences.

Learn more about Dyslexia

• Dyslexia Explained
• What Is Dyslexia?
• Dyslexia Symptoms
• Dyslexia Testing
• The Science of Reading

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has been one of the most hotly debated mental health conditions of recent times, with some researchers warning of overdiagnosis, while others point to the very real challenges faced by children with the condition. In the past decade, the number of children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD has risen by 41%, leading to a growing concern that diagnostic procedures are inconsistent and flawed. This article provides an overview of ADHD, the medications commonly used to treat it, and the controversy surrounding their use.

ADHD is a condition that affects both children and adults, with an estimated worldwide prevalence of 5.29% in children and 4.4% in adults. While the symptoms of ADHD, which include inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, can be difficult to manage, it is important to remember that the condition is not a life-threatening illness. However, the widespread use of medications like amphetamines, methylphenidate, and lisdexamphetamine has raised concerns among mental health professionals, parents, and educators.

One of the key concerns with ADHD medication is that it is often prescribed too readily, without sufficient consideration of the child’s individual needs and circumstances. Studies have found that the youngest children in each grade are more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than their older peers, suggesting that many children are being diagnosed simply because they are being asked to perform beyond their neurocognitive maturity. Additionally, there is significant variation in the rate of ADHD diagnosis and medication use between different regions and states, suggesting inconsistent diagnostic practices.

The medications commonly used to treat ADHD, which are all stimulants, work by increasing the concentration of certain signaling molecules in the brain, leading to increased alertness and focus. The two most commonly prescribed medications are amphetamines (Adderall) and methylphenidate (Ritalin), both of which can cause side effects such as insomnia and decreased appetite. Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse) is a newer medication that is considered safer and more resistant to abuse than its predecessors.

While there is evidence to suggest that ADHD medication can be effective in improving neuropsychological functioning, academic performance, and reducing the risk of substance misuse and other negative outcomes, it is important to remember that there are potential risks associated with their use. Children taking medication may experience growth slowing in the short term, and some complain of stomach upset and/or feeling “not themselves”. It is also important to consider non-medication interventions such as academic accommodations, increased physical exercise, and good sleep hygiene.

The rise in ADHD diagnoses and medication use has led to concerns about the medicalization of childhood and the potential for overdiagnosis and overtreatment. It is important for mental health professionals, parents, and educators to work together to ensure that children are diagnosed accurately and receive appropriate care that takes into account their individual needs and circumstances.

In conclusion, while ADHD medication can be an effective treatment option for some children and adults, it is important to consider potential risks and to explore non-medication interventions as well. It is also crucial to ensure that diagnostic procedures are consistent and accurate, and that children are not being overdiagnosed or overtreated. By working together, we can ensure that children with ADHD receive the care and support they need to thrive.

Looking for an ADHD test? Check out Polygon — we offer remote evaluations and support for ADHD, dyslexia, and other learning differences.

Learn more about ADHD

• ADHD Explained
• What is ADHD?
• ADHD Medication
• ADHD and the Medicalization of Childhood
• Adult ADHD
• ADHD in Women
• ADHD and Eating Disorders

Why has the prevalence of ADHD diagnoses increased?

According to research studies, the prevalence of ADHD diagnoses has increased due to ease of diagnosis and high demands for compliance in classrooms. The youngest children in each grade are considerably more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than their older peers, which suggests that many children are being diagnosed with ADHD who are simply being asked to perform beyond their neurocognitive maturity.

Are there inconsistencies in ADHD diagnosis across regions?

Yes. CDC surveys have found that the percentage of children under 17 who have ever received an ADHD diagnosis varies dramatically by region of the country. Some southern states reach rates as high as 16.6%, which is roughly three times that in most western states. These findings suggest that there are highly inconsistent practices in diagnosis across different regions.

What are the most commonly prescribed stimulants for ADHD?

The most commonly prescribed stimulants for ADHD are amphetamines, methylphenidate, and lisdexamfetamine.

Are stimulant medications the first-line treatment for ADHD?

Yes, stimulants are the first-line treatment for ADHD due to their significantly higher efficacy than non-stimulants. Non-stimulants are generally used only in individuals who don’t tolerate stimulants.

Are there any non-stimulant ADHD medications?

Yes, atomoxetine, clonidine, and guanfacine are non-stimulant ADHD medications, but they are rarely used as they produce only modest improvements in symptoms when used in isolation.

Are ADHD medications safe?

Stimulants taken as prescribed for ADHD are safe in the short term (i.e. under 2 years) with very few exceptions. However, it is important to apply caution prescribing stimulants when children are under 8 years old, and over a period of years, as studies do not rule out 2nd and 3rd order potential negative side effects.

Does medication work for ADHD?

Yes, studies investigating the effect of a single dose of methylphenidate on individuals with ADHD have found marked improvements in neuropsychological functioning in relation to their unmedicated ADHD peers. Comprehensive meta-analyses of the literature provides strong evidence for protective effects of stimulant treatment of ADHD across several categories, such as decreased risk of substance misuse and improvements in academic performance.

Can ADHD be treated without medication?

Yes, there are other interventions that should be considered either in place of or in addition to pharmaceuticals, such as academic accommodations, increased physical exercise, parental education, limiting sugar / processed food, and good sleep hygiene. A combination of behavioral interventions and medication produces the most significant improvement in functioning and reduction in symptomatology.

What is the difference between Ritalin and Adderall?

Ritalin and Adderall have very similar effects in the body, but there is a slight difference in their mechanism of action. Both medications inhibit transporters that are responsible for the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine from the synapse, thus increasing their extracellular concentration. Adderall, however, has the additional effect of increasing the release of dopamine from the neuron, and produces a modestly larger increase in dopamine concentration.

Is it ethical to medicate children for ADHD?

It is not ethical to medicate children without careful diagnosis, for the convenience of parents and teachers, or merely to give a child a competitive advantage academically. A critical prerequisite for writing a stimulant prescription for a child must be that it is medically indicated, necessary, and in the child’s best interest.

Looking for an ADHD test? Check out Polygon — we offer remote evaluations and support for ADHD, dyslexia, and other learning differences.

Learn more about ADHD

• ADHD Explained
• What is ADHD?
• ADHD Medication
• ADHD and the Medicalization of Childhood
• Adult ADHD
• ADHD in Women
• ADHD and Eating Disorders

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a condition that affects a person’s ability to focus, remain physically still, and think before reacting. It affects about 5–10% of people worldwide and can range from mild to severe. However, it is often misunderstood and misdiagnosed, which can lead to confusion and harmful decisions. As a parent, it’s important to understand what ADHD is, how it can be diagnosed, and how it can be treated.

What is ADHD?

ADHD is a condition that affects attention and behavior. People with ADHD may have difficulty controlling their impulses, focusing, or being still. While many people have some of the symptoms, to be diagnosed with ADHD, a person must have a certain number, frequency, severity, and persistence of symptoms that interfere with daily functioning.

What are the Symptoms of ADHD?

The symptoms of ADHD can be divided into three categories: inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. These symptoms can present in different ways and to different degrees, depending on the person’s age and subtype of ADHD.

Inattentive symptoms can include difficulty controlling attention, finishing tasks, losing homework, being very sensitive to noises, tastes, or other sensations, under-achieving, and failing to complete homework. Hyperactive symptoms can include trouble sleeping, fidgeting, moving without purpose, talking constantly, and trouble sitting still. Impulsive symptoms can include temper outbursts, accidental injuries, interrupting, trouble maintaining friendships, an inability to delay gratification, and “no filter” in conversation.

It’s important to note that these symptoms must be present for at least six months and in at least two different settings. In addition, they must cause functional impairment (i.e. social, academic, or occupational problems that impact daily life) and not be attributable to other factors such as substance use or mood disorders.

How is ADHD Diagnosed?

A trained professional can diagnose ADHD by observing behavior and analyzing questionnaires completed by long-term observers, often parents or teachers. Psychoeducational testing can also be helpful for diagnosis. Although physicians sometimes diagnose ADHD by observing a patient and speaking with family members, this is generally considered insufficient for formal diagnosis and should not be the sole basis for treatment.

It’s also important to note that ADHD can be diagnosed in both children and adults. While ADHD has long been considered a disorder of childhood, recent data suggests that roughly one-third of children with ADHD continue to meet diagnostic criteria through adulthood, while around 65% still experience significant symptoms.

What Should Parents Know?

It’s important for parents to remember that different does not mean inferior, and society benefits from neurological diversity. While ADHD can present challenges for children, it’s important to support them without medicalizing their personality or development. Additionally, parents should be aware that there is growing concern that girls are being underdiagnosed and thus undertreated for ADHD. Finally, parents should also be aware of the correlation between ADHD and eating disorders in young people with ADHD, especially in situations where medication is being considered.

In conclusion, ADHD is a common condition that can affect people of all ages. By understanding the symptoms of ADHD, how it can be diagnosed, and how it can be treated, parents can help their children reach their full potential.

Looking for an ADHD test? Check out Polygon —we offer remote evaluations and support for ADHD, dyslexia, and other learning differences.

Learn more about ADHD

• ADHD Explained
• What is ADHD?
• ADHD Medication
• ADHD and the Medicalization of Childhood
• Adult ADHD
• ADHD in Women
• ADHD and Eating Disorders

What is ADHD in adults?

ADHD stands for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, a condition that affects an individual’s ability to focus, control impulses, and regulate behavior. It is a condition that can continue from childhood into adulthood, and recent data suggests that roughly one-third of children with ADHD continue to meet diagnostic criteria through adulthood, while around 65% still experience significant symptoms.

What are some reasons why ADHD in adults is often undiagnosed?

There are several key reasons why ADHD in adults often remains undiagnosed. Firstly, hyperactivity and impulsivity tend to naturally decrease with neurocognitive maturity, and thus adults are more likely to display features of the inattentive subtype of ADHD. Secondly, while environmental demands during school years are relatively consistent among children and young adults, they vary enormously in adulthood as individuals enter the workforce. Lastly, the symptoms of ADHD can be difficult to understand and identify in adults as they are both nonspecific to ADHD (i.e., other things can cause these symptoms) and they may be masked by coping mechanisms developed over many years.

What are some symptoms of ADHD in adults?

Symptoms of ADHD in adults include trouble completing tasks, restlessness, excessive talking, needing drugs or alcohol to relax, health problems, divorce, and poor career outcomes. These symptoms can be difficult to understand in adults as they are both nonspecific to ADHD and may be masked by coping mechanisms developed over many years.

What are some negative outcomes associated with untreated ADHD in adults?

Adults with untreated ADHD are more likely to suffer from mood disorders, health problems, divorce, and poor career outcomes.

What are some treatment options for adult ADHD?

There are a variety of treatment options that have been proven effective for managing adult ADHD, including cognitive behavior therapy and stimulant medication. Therapy is particularly important in newly diagnosed adults as they often have experienced considerable interpersonal dysfunction and emotional distress secondary to years of untreated ADHD.

What is cognitive behavior therapy?

Cognitive behavior therapy is a type of talk therapy that helps individuals identify negative thoughts and behaviors and learn coping skills to change them. It is an effective treatment option for managing adult ADHD.

What are stimulant medications used in the treatment of adult ADHD?

Stimulant medications are commonly used in the treatment of adult ADHD to help improve attention and control impulsivity.

Is there a cure for adult ADHD?

Currently, there is no cure for adult ADHD, but effective management strategies can significantly improve quality of life.

Can adults with ADHD achieve high levels of functioning?

Many adults with ADHD can achieve high levels of functioning, but it often requires immense effort and can be an emotional burden that may cause anxiety or depression.

Is it ever too late to get diagnosed with ADHD as an adult?

It is never too late to get diagnosed with ADHD as an adult. While diagnosis of ADHD in adults is challenging, seeking treatment can significantly improve quality of life.

Looking for an ADHD test? Check out Polygon — we offer remote evaluations and support for ADHD, dyslexia, and other learning differences.

Learn more about ADHD

• Adult ADHD
• ADHD Explained
• What is ADHD?
• ADHD Medication
• ADHD and the Medicalization of Childhood
• ADHD in Women
• ADHD and Eating Disorders

Neuropsychological testing was initially developed as a way for psychologists to determine what cognitive or behavioral skills were missing in people who suffered severe head trauma — people who were missing pieces of their brain because of accidents or violence. Over time, as knowledge grew, neuropsychologists began to be able to not just document lost skills when the extent of the injury was already known but also work backward and infer the location and extent of the damage. With further progress, neuropsychologists could provide critical information about cognitive functioning and behavior in people with fundamentally intact brains.

The extent and localization of brain damage are still the province of the most highly trained neuropsychologists, who often assess people with complicated medical histories at risk for compromised brain function. However, their assessment tools have become meaningful lenses to examine more subtle and commonplace cognitive strengths and weaknesses in intact brains. While in common parlance, this, too, is called neuropsychological testing, it does not require the highly specialized training and certification process that certified neuropsychologists undergo. Well-trained specialists in learning differences and cognitive assessment can diagnose dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, ADHD, giftedness, and Specific Learning Disabilities (SLDs). This is done using intelligence and academic tests with or without specialized neuropsychological tests. When neuropsychological tests are included in an evaluation for learning differences, most consumers and psychologists consider this a neuropsychological assessment, even though it is a far cry from the way this term was initially conceived. Commonly used neuropsychological tests, like the Rey, Wisconsin Card Sort, WRAML, and D-KEF, examine areas of function like visual and auditory memory, cognitive switching, visual-motor skills, executive functioning, and other cognitively essential functions that are valuable areas of study but are not fundamental to the diagnosis of learning differences.

Neuropsychological testing adds breadth and depth to the understanding of a person’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses and, as such, has real value for those who have the resources to obtain this kind of testing. In particular, it can help plan appropriate interventions for children, teens, and adults in areas where they struggle. However, it is a common misconception that neuropsychological testing is necessary to diagnose learning differences. Neuropsychological testing with a certified neuropsychologist is only necessary to help localize brain injury and describe compromised functioning for those with medically complicated histories that include suspected or documented central nervous system compromise. With regards to learning differences, people do not need specialized neuropsychological testing to identify learning differences and qualify for academic accommodations. Less exhaustive testing can identify critical delays in particular academic subjects and/or discrepancies between overall abilities and academic performance. In the case of healthy children, teens, and adults struggling at school or work, individuals can choose how extensively to be tested based on pragmatic considerations like time, convenience, and cost. They do not need to worry about obtaining substandard care if they do not get neuropsychological testing. Neuropsychological testing in this context may be best viewed as a luxury rather than a necessity.

Looking for neuropsychological testing? Check out Polygon!

Dysgraphia Definition

Dysgraphia is a learning difference in writing that, like most learning differences, is conceptualized in two different ways. Under the discrepancy model (traditionally used by psychology professionals), dysgraphia is a term used to describe a weakness in writing relative to an individual’s overall cognitive abilities. Many educational systems employ the absolute model of learning differences, which will consider students’ dysgraphia if they consistently perform below grade level in writing, regardless of their capabilities in other academic subjects.

It should be noted that while dysgraphia is not defined in either of the primary classification systems used in psychology (the DSM-5 and ICD-11), there is considerable overlap between dysgraphia and a Specific Learning Disability (SLD) in writing as defined by the DSM-5. Because these terms are sometimes used interchangeably, the DSM-5 criteria for SLD in writing will be outlined below.

What Is Dysgraphia?

Dysgraphia has been estimated to affect 7–15% of school-aged children, but diagnostic ambiguity makes it difficult to ascertain the true prevalence (Hawke et al., 2009). While studies suggest dyslexia and dysgraphia may be equally common, there is much less awareness of and research devoted to dysgraphia.

The DSM-5 does not define dysgraphia but defines an SLD in writing as an impediment to the ability to learn writing.

To meet the criteria for this SLD, the impairment must be sufficient to cause the student to perform significantly behind their grade level in writing for at least 6 months and persist even after receiving targeted help. These difficulties must not be better explained by a lack of proper instruction, other developmental disabilities, or other neurologic or sensory deficits.

Dysgraphia Symptoms

Children with dysgraphia in preschool and kindergarten may struggle to form letter shapes, have difficulty gripping a pencil, or have trouble difficulty organizing or articulating thoughts on paper.

People with dysgraphia generally have trouble with writing and exhibit other motor impairments, while dysgraphia in adolescents and adults manifests as difficulties with syntax, grammar, and writing thoughts down.

It must be emphasized that although the above symptoms are quite common in individuals with dysgraphia, many are also common in the general population. Furthermore, formal diagnoses are not made based on the subjective experience of struggling with writing. The primary utility in recognizing these symptoms is prompting appropriate formal testing.

Dysgraphia Testing

One of the essential features of an accurate diagnosis of dysgraphia is a synthesis of the individual’s overall academic capabilities across different domains and throughout time. Because there is so much potential for confounding factors influencing an individual’s academic performance in writing, as much data should be obtained from as many different sources as possible. These sources should likely include the student, parents, teachers, and formal testing. Another important factor to consider is the presence or absence of a marked discrepancy between performance in other subjects and writing. Strong students performing well below their baseline in one subject may be especially likely to benefit from targeted interventions.

It should be noted that given the lack of understanding of the underlying neurologic processes and the many combinations of factors that produce the same result (such as poor academic performance in writing), it is difficult to ensure an accurate diagnosis of dysgraphia.

What Happens After Diagnosis?

After being diagnosed with dysgraphia, individuals will generally be offered accommodations. They may also benefit from more individual instruction. Because each student with dysgraphia may struggle most with different aspects of learning writing, there is no one teaching strategy that will be most effective for everyone. Successful interventions may require trial and error and ongoing communication with the learner.

Looking for a dysgraphia test? Check out Polygon — we offer remote evaluations and support for dysgraphia, dyslexia, and other learning differences.

Learn more about dysgraphia

• Dysgraphia Symptoms
• What Is Dysgraphia?
• Dysgraphia Testing