Peer-Reviewed Research - Force Science

Our Research

Force Science’s Division of Research scientifically investigates and comprehends the physical and psychological dynamics of force encounters. Our studies focus on human behaviors in high-stress confrontations, addressing real-life challenges faced by law enforcement officers. Explore our findings for detailed information and article downloads.

Commitment to Scientific Integrity and Open Inquiry

At Force Science, we recognize that science is an evolving pursuit that demands continual critical examination. Research findings must be tested, challenged, and refined as new data and methodologies emerge. We are committed to maintaining the highest standards of scientific rigor and transparency in our work.

If you become aware of research that is inconsistent with or contradicts our findings, we invite you to bring it to our attention. Open discourse and evidence-based inquiry are essential to advancing our understanding of human performance, decision-making, and the dynamics of force encounters.

To share relevant research or engage in scholarly discussion, please contact us!

Peer-Reviewed Articles

2025 & 2024

Time to Stop: Firearm Simulation Dynamics

Lon D. Bartel, Nicole M. Florisi, Von Kliem, Tom Cameron, Miranda Fuller and Jeff Knaup

The Eyes Have It! Functional Field of View Differences Between Visual Search Behavior and Body-Worn Camera During a Use of Force Response in Active-Duty Police Officers

Nicholas P. Murray, William Lewinski, Craig Allen, Gustavo Sandri Heidner, Michael W. Albin & Robert Horn

Assessing Between-Officer Variability in Responses to a Live-acted Deadly Force Encounter as a Window to the Effectiveness of Training and Experience

Robert R. Horn, William J. Lewinski, Gustavo Sandri Heidner, Joshua Lawton, Craig Allen, Michael W. Albin & Nicholas P. Murray

Gaze Control and Tactical Decision-Making Under Stress in Active-Duty Police Officers During a Live Use-of-Force Response

By Nicholas P. Murray, William Lewinski, Gustavo Sandri Heidner, Joshua Lawton & Robert Horn

Startle Response and Firearm Draw Performance in Law Enforcement Officers during a Lethal Force Simulated Domestic Assault

By Michael A. Kantor, Dane E. Bartz, William J. Lewinski and Robert W. Pettitt4

Kinematic Analysis of Naive Shooters in Common Law Enforcement Encounters

By Michael A. Kantor, William J. Lewinski, Hina Garg, Joel Tenbrink, Jeff Lau and Robert W. Pettitt

Training and Safety: Potentially Lethal Blue-on-Blue Encounters

By Dawn A. O’Neill, William R. Spence, William J. Lewinski & Emily J. Novak

Police Academy Training, Performance, and Learning

By John O’Neill, Dawn A. O’Neill, Katelyn Weed, Mark E. Hartman, William Spence, William J. Lewinski

Journal of Organizational Behavior Management

Functional Behavior Assessment of the Unintentional Discharge of Firearms in Law Enforcement

By John O’Neill

Further Analysis of the Unintentional Discharge of Firearms in Law Enforcement

By John O’Neill, Mark E. Hartman, Dawn A. O’Neill, & William J. Lewinski

Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology

Protective Vests in Law Enforcement: A Pilot Survey of Public Perceptions

By John O’Neill, Steven A. Swenson, Emily Stark, Dawn A. O’Neill, & William J. Lewinski

Toward a Taxonomy of the Unintentional Discharge of Firearms in Law Enforcement

By John O’Neill, Dawn A. O’Neill, & William J. Lewinski

Law Enforcement Memory of Stressful Events: Recall Accuracy as a Function of Detail Type

By Mark E. Hartman, Dawn A. O’Neill, John O'Neill, & William J. Lewinski

The Speed of a Prone Subject

By William J. Lewinski, Dawn A. Seefeldt, Christina Redmann, Madeleine Gonin, Scott Sargent, Jennifer L. Dysterheft, & Patricia Thiem

Memory and the Operational Witness: Police Officer Recall of Firearms Encounters as a Function of Active Response Role

By Lorraine Hope, David Blocksidge, Fiona Gabbert, James D. Sauer, William J. Lewinski, Arta Mirashi, & Emel Atuk

International Journal of Police Science and Management

The Real Risks During Deadly Police Shootouts: Accuracy of the Naive Shooter

By William J. Lewinski, Ron Avery, Jennifer L. Dysterheft, Nathan D. Dicks, & Jacob M. Bushey

The Influence of Officer Equipment and Protection on Short Sprinting Performance

By William J. Lewinski, Jennifer L. Dysterheft, Nathan D. Dicks, & Robert W. Pettitt

Ambushes Leading Cause of Officer Fatalities – When Every Second Counts: Analysis of Officer Movement from Trained Ready Tactical Positions

By William J. Lewinski, Jennifer L. Dysterheft, Jacob M. Bushey, Nathan D. Dicks

Police Practice and Research: An International Journal

Police Officers’ Actual vs. Recalled Path of Travel in Response to a Threatening Traffic Stop Scenario

By William J. Lewinski, Jennifer L. Dysterheft, Matthew M. Priem, & Robert W. Pettitt

Police Officer Reaction Time to Start and Stop Shooting: The Influence of Decision-Making and Pattern Recognition

By William J. Lewinski, William B. Hudson, & Jennifer L. Dysterheft

The Influence of Start Position, Initial Step Type, and Usage of a Focal Point on Sprinting Performance

By William J. Lewinski, Jennifer L. Dysterheft, Dawn A. Seefeldt, & Robert W. Pettitt

The Influence of Officer Positioning on Movement during a Threatening Traffic Stop Scenario

By William J. Lewinski, Jennifer L. Dysterheft, Dawn A. Seefeldt, & Robert W. Pettitt

Witnesses in Action: The Effect of Physical Exertion on Recall and Recognition

By Lorraine Hope, William J. Lewinski, Justin Dixon, David Blocksidge, & Fiona Gabbert

Performing Under Pressure: Gaze Control, Decision Making, and Shooting Performance of Elite and Rookie Police Officers

By Joan N. Vickers & William J. Lewinski

Fired Cartridge Case Ejection Patterns from Semi-Automatic Firearms

By William J. Lewinski, William B. Hudson, David Karwoski, & Christa J. Redmann

New Developments in Understanding the Behavioral Science Factors in the ‘Stop Shooting’ Response

By William J. Lewinski & Christa Redmann

The Attention Study: A Study on the Presence of Selective Attention in Firearms Officers

By William J. Lewinski

Pursuit Driver Training Improves Memory for Skill-Based Information

By Jonathan W. Page, Corey M. Thibeault, Kasee F. Page, William J. Lewinski

A Survey of the Research on Human Factors Related to Lethal Force Encounters: Implications for Law Enforcement Training, Tactics, and Testimony

By Audrey Honig & William J. Lewinski

Command Sequence in Police Encounters: Searching for a Linguistic Fingerprint

By Julie Vandermay, Daniel Houlihan, Liesa A. Klein, William J. Lewinski, Jeffrey Buchanan

Command Types Use in Police Encounters

Emily Schwarzkopf, Daniel Houlihan, Kari Kolb, William J. Lewinski, Jeffrey Buchanan, & Angela Christenson