C++ Tutorial

What is C++?

C++ is a versatile, high-level programming language that extends the C language by adding object-oriented features. It combines the power and efficiency of C with the ability to represent real-world objects, making it suitable for a wide range of applications, including gaming, database systems, embedded systems, and desktop applications.

Key Features of C++

C++ builds on the foundations of C, incorporating both procedural and object-oriented programming paradigms. It offers features such as:

• Polymorphism: The ability to define methods in multiple ways.
• Inheritance: Facilitates code reuse by allowing new classes to derive from existing ones.
• Function/Operator Overloading: Enables the same function or operator to perform different tasks based on arguments.
• Dynamic Memory Allocation: Manages memory allocation and deallocation at runtime.
• Exception Handling: Provides mechanisms to handle errors gracefully.

These features enable C++ to generate code that is modular, scalable, and easy to maintain.

History and Development of C++

C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA, starting in 1979. Stroustrup aimed to combine the efficiency and power of C with the features of object-oriented programming, inspired by languages such as Simula67. Initially named ‘C with Classes,’ the language was later renamed C++ to reflect its evolution from C.

Programming Paradigms in C++

Paradigm refers to the style of writing the code. C++ is a multiparadigm language. It uses generic, imperative, procedural and object-oriented paradigms.

• Procedural Programming: Procedural Programming is a subtype of imperative programming paradigm. In procedural programming, the program is structured in multiple procedures also known as routines or functions.
• Object Oriented Programming: Object Oriented programming paradigm focuses on making the model as close to the real world as possible by using inheritable classes and objects.
• Generic Programming: Generic programming is a programming in which the code is written in terms of types that are to be specified later in the program that are then instantiated when needed for specific types provided as parameters.

Differences Between C and C++

C++ was created to overcome the shortcomings of C language. C is a subset of C++. Thus, it is natural that C++ has many newer features. Here are key differences:

Tokens in C++

The smallest units of a program are called tokens. The different types of tokens in C++ are mentioned below:

• Keywords: Keywords are those words in C++ who have a reserved meaning and are used to perform a specific task. Some examples of keywords are ‘struct’, ‘break’, ‘class’, ‘while’, ‘union’, ‘switch’, etc.
• Identifiers: Identifiers refers to the names of variables, arrays, classes, functions created by the programmer. Identifiers cannot have a keyword as the name to avoid ambiguity.
• Constants: Values declared as constants cannot change their value during the program. Constants can be integers, characters, floating point numbers, strings, etc.
• Operators: Operators are special symbols that helps to perform some tasks on variables. C++ has many types of operators like arithmetic operators, logical operators, relational operators, assignment operators, bitwise operators, etc.

Rules for Naming Variables in C++

A variable is nothing but a name used to reference a memory location. As the name suggests, the value stored in a variable is variable, this means it can be changed during the run of the program. Rules for naming variables in C++ are mentioned below.

• A variable name can only consist of lowercase and uppercase alphabets, numbers and underscores. Variables in C++ are case sensitive.
• A variable must be declared only once within its scope. Multiple variables may have the same name as long as their scopes don’t overlap.
• Keywords such as ‘struct’, ‘break’, ‘class’, ‘goto’, ‘while’, ‘union’, ‘switch’ etc. cannot be used as variable names in order to avoid ambiguity.
• Variable names must not start with a number. Variable names can be upto 256 characters long.

Advantages of C++

• Object-Oriented Programming: C++ supports object-oriented programming, which helps in creating modular, reusable, and maintainable code by using classes and objects.
• High Performance: Known for its efficiency and control over system resources, C++ is ideal for applications where performance is critical, such as game development and real-time systems.
• Standard Library: C++ comes with a rich standard library that provides useful tools like containers, algorithms, and utilities, making it easier to write complex programs.
• Flexibility: The language offers fine-grained control over memory and system resources, allowing developers to optimize their code for specific needs.
• Compatibility with C: Since C++ includes most of C’s features, it allows developers to use existing C code and gradually transition to C++.

Disadvantages of C++

• Complexity: C++ has a complex syntax and a steep learning curve, which can make it challenging for newcomers to grasp and use effectively.
• Manual Memory Management: Unlike some languages with automatic memory management, C++ requires developers to handle memory allocation and deallocation manually, which can lead to memory leaks and errors if not managed properly.
• No Built-In Garbage Collection: C++ does not have automatic garbage collection, so developers must explicitly manage memory, adding to the potential for errors and complexity.
• Portability Issues: Code written in C++ can be less portable due to differences in compilers and platforms, which may require adjustments to run on different systems.
• Longer Compilation Times: C++ programs can take longer to compile, particularly due to its complex features like templates.

C++ Programming Index

For a deeper understanding of C++ and related concepts, explore the following topics:

C++ Basics

• Datatypes in C++
• Operators in C++
• Storage Classes in C++
• Conditional Statements in C++
• Loops in C++

Functions in C++

• Functions in C++
• Pass by Value and Pass by Reference in C++
• Inline Functions in C++
• Default Arguments in C++
• Constant Arguments in C++
• Recursion in C++

Classes and Objects

• C++ Classes and Objects
• Member Functions in C++
• Nesting of Member Functions in C++
• Memory Allocation for Objects in C++
• Static Data Members in C++
• Static Member Function in C++
• Objects as Function Arguments in C++
• Friend Functions and Classes in C++
• Operator Overloading in C++ Using Friend Function
• Pointers to Members in C++
• Local Classes in C++

Arrays, Pointers, and Strings

• Arrays in C++
• Pointers in C++
• Dynamic Memory Allocation in C++
• Strings in C++

Constructors and Destructors

• Constructors in C++
• Difference Between Constructor and Member Function in C++
• Parameterized Constructors in C++
• Constructors With Default Arguments in C++
• Constructor Overloading in C++
• Dynamic Initialization of Object in C++
• Copy Constructor in C++
• Dynamic Constructor in C++
• Destructors in C++

C++ OOPS Concepts

• Encapsulation and Abstraction in C++
• Inheritance in C++
• Polymorphism in C++
• Virtual Function in C++

Advanced C++ Concepts

• Exception Handling in C++
• File Handling in C++
• Templates in C++
• Standard Template Library (STL)