Note: English translation of the titles are taken from Chinese-English Dictionary of Ming Government Official Titles, Third Edition, supplemented with some translations of my own.
Note that my own translations and translations taken from elsewhere are italicised.
As the Ming Dynasty began to decline in the sixteenth century, the Wei-Suo System also became increasingly dysfunctional. Corruption, land consolidation, and ever-increasing varieties of corvee labours placed a heavy burden on Wei-Suo servicemen, leading to rampant desertions among able-bodied servicemen, while those who remained were often too old or too weak to desert, and likewise unable to perform military duties. The ailing Wei-Suo System necessitated a reform to salvage the military preparedness of the Ming army, thus a new system known as Ying Bing System (營兵制) was introduced, so-named because soldiers were now organised into regiments known as Ying (營, lit. 'Camp, battalion') instead of Guards and Garrisons.
At its core, Ying Bing System was devised to better manage Mu Bing (募兵, lit. 'Recruited soldier')—a new type of hired soldiery that were recruited and paid a salary for the duration of a military campaign—on a more permanent basis. However, it'd be a reductive misinterpretation to view Ying Bing as some sort of mercenaries, and that the new Ying Bing System superseded the old Wei-Suo System.
In actuality, the bulk of Ying Bing regiments actually comprised of military household servicemen, and both systems ran in parallel and supplemented each others till the very end of the Ming Dynasty. Essentially, Ying Bing System took over the operational functions of the military, allowing Wei-Suo System to be shifted to a primarily administrative role. Under this new system, able-bodied servicemen were drawn from Guards and Garrisons and reorganised into battle-ready regiments, with any vacancies filled by civilian recruits and other sources. This also led to an interesting and unique phenomenon where hereditary military household servicemen, often referred to as Jun (軍, lit. 'Military', i.e. serviceman), and regimented soldiers, often referred to as Bing (兵, lit. 'Soldier'), were seen as two distinct but strongly overlapping entities during Ming period.
Nevertheless, since the Ying Bing System was introduced rather haphazardly as an ad hoc workaround for the ailing Wei-Suo System, and its initial implementation was immature and far from seamless, the system underwent continuous tweaking and refinement until the end of the Ming Dynasty, making it challenging to generalise.
As an institutionalised field formation, leadership positions of the Ying Bing System were directly dispatched and appointed by the central government, and denoted roles rather than formal titles. As such, none of the positions had either a rank or a salary, and it was not unusual for one person to assume several positions concurrently. In addition, there were also numerous one-off titles created for specific purposes.
1) Military Overseers
A unique aspect of the Ying Bing System was that its highest command echelon was dominated not by military officials but by civil officials, who assumed the role of military overseers. Initially, military overseers managed the strategic planning and administrative aspects of the military; however, some were soon granted authority to command military forces, even though planning and administration remained their primary responsibilities.Military overseers with command authority recruited their soldiers independently of standard regiments, which were directly subordinate to them. These regiments, known as Biao Bing Ying (標兵營, lit. 'Bannered soldier regiment'), were often made up of the cream of the crop of soldiers, trained to a comparable standard to Jia Ding (家丁).
Du Shi (督師)/Overseer of the Armed Force
Belatedly established during the final years of the Ming Dynasty, Overseer of the Armed Force was the highest-ranking military officer of the Ming Dynasty's military, and was granted the authority to command all military assets in a given theatre, usually four to seven Sheng (省), or provinces.
Overseer of the Armed Force was not a permanent position and could be appointed and dismissed on an as-needed basis, which, given the position's extensive geographical jurisdiction, usually meant the empire was facing a major crisis.
Similar to Overseer of the Armed Force, Military Affairs Commissioner was not a permanent position and could be appointed and dismissed on an as-needed basis. By and large, this position was only needed when there was a wartime emergency or important military campaign.
For the most part, Supreme Commander was also not a permanent position and could be appointed or dismissed on an as-needed basis, although there were some notable exceptions such as Supreme Commander of Liangguang (兩廣總督), Supreme Commander of Military Affairs in the Three Frontiers of Shaanxi (三邊總督) and a few others, which were functionally permanent posts.
Originally an imperial auditor dispatched by the emperor to evaluate and, if necessary, intervene in the operations of provincial governments, the Grand Coordinator was made a permanent post with its own government office during mid-Ming period, as it was found to be effective in enabling the central government to exert direct control over its provinces.
Regarding military matters, the circuit primarily responsible was Bing Bei Dao (兵備道), or the Military Defence Circuit, although it sometimes shared this role with General Administration Circuit and General Surveillance Circuit. Military Defence Circuit was charged with training Wei-Suo servicemen and militia, manufacturing and maintaining weapons and equipment, building and maintaining fortifications and city walls, managing logistics, soldier's pay, and military household farmlands, law enforcement and public safety, river and coastal patrols, fostering smoother cooperation between Wei-Suo System and Ying Bing System, and many more. During wartime, circuit officials served in a similar role as Grand Coordinator but in a lesser capacity, reporting to the former and assisting field commanders of lower ranks such as Vice Regional Commanders and Assistant Regional Commanders.
Less commonly, Xun Hai Dao (巡海道), or the Coastal Patrol Circuit, which was more specialised in coastal patrols, combating piracy, and regulating maritime trade, would also be involved in military affairs, especially against naval threats.
Military-related circuits also served an important secondary function—that is, serving in these circuits allowed low-ranking civil officials to accustom themselves to military matters early in their careers. This ensured that a cadre of military-trained civil officials was always available to serve, thereby reducing the likelihood of unqualified officials with no practical military experience being abruptly promoted into senior military roles.
Elsewise, a Grand Coordinator who was granted full military authority over a province would also receive the same title (the title of Grand Coordinator still took precedence).
The full title of a Regional Commander was actually Zhen Shou Zong Bing Guan (鎮守總兵官, lit. 'Region-defending commander'), with the prefix of Zhen Shou (鎮守, lit. 'Regional defence') indicating that he was responsible for the defence of the entire province or defence region. Naturally, a Regional Commander and the regiments under his command would be stationed at a fortress-settlement called Zhen Cheng (鎮城, lit. '[Defence] Region-city'), which also served as the military headquarters of the entire defence region.
A regiment under direct command of a Regional Commander was known as a Zheng Bing Ying (正兵營, lit. 'Orthodox soldier regiment'). However, after the practice of raising Biao Bing Ying became widespread, Regional Commanders also gradually switched to raising their own Biao Bing Ying.
A regiment under direct command of a Vice Regional Commander was known as a Qi Bing Ying (奇兵營, lit. 'Unorthodox soldier regiment'). True to its namesake, Qi Bing Ying often engaged in unorthodox tactics such as ambush and flanking attack, and was considered the most elite among the standard regiments.
A regiment under direct command of an Assistant Regional Commander was known as a Yuan Bing Ying (援兵營, lit. 'Succoring soldier regiment'), which focused on safeguarding its designated route, as well as supporting, reinforcing, and acting in concert with other regiments during a larger military campaign.
A regiment under direct command of a Mobile Corps Commander was known as a You Bing Ying (游兵營, lit. 'Roaming soldier regiment'), which functioned as a rapid response force.
Supervising Commander outranked Municipal Military Commander, despite the title being introduced later. It did not have the authority to issue direct orders to Municipal Military Commander.
Soldiers under the command of Municipal Military Commanders were known as Shou Cheng Bing (守城兵, lit. 'City-defending soldier'), who were often drawn from Cheng Chao Jun (城操軍, lit. 'City-defending and drilling serviceman')— that is, Wei-Suo servicemen selected for city defence duty and underwent regular training, blurring the line between the two. Shou Cheng Bing were considered the lowest quality soldiers and rarely form regiments, although they still met minimum combat-capable standards. In time of need, Shou Cheng Bing also acted as a reservist force and provided replacement personnel for other regiments.
Since local Grand Coordinators or Supreme Commanders appointed their respective junior military officers, there was little standardization in their titles and responsibilities. Nevertheless, junior military officers could still be broadly grouped into two categories, namely Guang Ying Guan (管營官) and Shou Tu Guan (守土官), which will be elaborated below.
Overseer of the Armed Force was not a permanent position and could be appointed and dismissed on an as-needed basis, which, given the position's extensive geographical jurisdiction, usually meant the empire was facing a major crisis.
Jing Lue (經略)/Military Affairs Commissioner
A Military Affairs Commissioner was a high-ranking military overseer primarily tasked with coordinating military operations involving either the Japanese or the Jurchens/Manchu, and was granted authority to command Grand Coordinators and Regional Commanders involved in a given military campaign. Military Affairs Commissioner slightly outranked Supreme Commander, the next-highest position, although it lacked the authority to issue direct orders to Supreme Commander. On the occasions when both Military Affairs Commissioner and Supreme Commander were present in the same military campaign, decisions were made through discussion and collective agreement between the two.Similar to Overseer of the Armed Force, Military Affairs Commissioner was not a permanent position and could be appointed and dismissed on an as-needed basis. By and large, this position was only needed when there was a wartime emergency or important military campaign.
Zong Du (總督)/Supreme Commander
A Supreme Commander was a senior military overseer with the authority to coordinate and command Grand Coordinators and Regional Commanders from two to three adjacent provinces, defence regions, or a combination of the two.For the most part, Supreme Commander was also not a permanent position and could be appointed or dismissed on an as-needed basis, although there were some notable exceptions such as Supreme Commander of Liangguang (兩廣總督), Supreme Commander of Military Affairs in the Three Frontiers of Shaanxi (三邊總督) and a few others, which were functionally permanent posts.
Xun Fu (巡撫)/Grand Coordinator
A Grand Coordinator was a official tasked with overseeing the Provincial Administration Commission (布政司), Provincial Surveillance Commission (按察司), and Regional Military Commission of a designated area, usually but not always a province, thus making him functionally the highest-ranking governing official of that area. Unlike the Overseer of the Armed Force, Military Affairs Commissioner, and Supreme Commander, Grand Coordinator was not a strictly military position, although its responsibility and authority could be, and often was, further expanded to encompass military roles within its province, ranging from administrative and advisory positions to full authority to command Military Superintendents and Regional Commanders.Originally an imperial auditor dispatched by the emperor to evaluate and, if necessary, intervene in the operations of provincial governments, the Grand Coordinator was made a permanent post with its own government office during mid-Ming period, as it was found to be effective in enabling the central government to exert direct control over its provinces.
Circuit official
A Dao (道), or circuit, was a supervising institution established by the provincial governments to oversee and monitor the operations of prefecture-level governments, although over time it also gradually assumed governing and administrative responsibilities. Many types of circuits existed, often with confusingly overlapping roles and responsibilities. However, by far the most common were Fen Shou Dao (分守道), or the General Administration Circuit, primarily responsible for administration, finance and taxation; and Fen Xun Dao (分巡道), or the General Surveillance Circuit, primarily responsible for law enforcement, public order, and governance oversight.Regarding military matters, the circuit primarily responsible was Bing Bei Dao (兵備道), or the Military Defence Circuit, although it sometimes shared this role with General Administration Circuit and General Surveillance Circuit. Military Defence Circuit was charged with training Wei-Suo servicemen and militia, manufacturing and maintaining weapons and equipment, building and maintaining fortifications and city walls, managing logistics, soldier's pay, and military household farmlands, law enforcement and public safety, river and coastal patrols, fostering smoother cooperation between Wei-Suo System and Ying Bing System, and many more. During wartime, circuit officials served in a similar role as Grand Coordinator but in a lesser capacity, reporting to the former and assisting field commanders of lower ranks such as Vice Regional Commanders and Assistant Regional Commanders.
Less commonly, Xun Hai Dao (巡海道), or the Coastal Patrol Circuit, which was more specialised in coastal patrols, combating piracy, and regulating maritime trade, would also be involved in military affairs, especially against naval threats.
Military-related circuits also served an important secondary function—that is, serving in these circuits allowed low-ranking civil officials to accustom themselves to military matters early in their careers. This ensured that a cadre of military-trained civil officials was always available to serve, thereby reducing the likelihood of unqualified officials with no practical military experience being abruptly promoted into senior military roles.
2) Field Commanders
In contrast to military overseers, the role of field commanders was exclusively held by military officials. Their primary duty was to lead battlefield operations, with secondary responsibilities including overseeing training, maintaining fortifications, and even managing canal dredging.Ti Du (提督)/Military Superintendent
A Military Superintendent was a commanding officer who was granted additional authority over military assets beyond his designated area of responsibility. Typically, this referred to a Regional Commander or Vice Regional Commander who also commanded a few Garrisons in an adjacent province (because a country's defence disposition does not always align with its administrative division), in such cases his original title took precedence as his primary responsibility outweighed his secondary one. However, for major military campaigns, a Regional Commander who was granted the title of Military Superintendent could even command other Regional Commanders subordinated to him, and in such cases he would adopt the title of Military Superintendent as his new primary title, although only for the duration of that campaign.Elsewise, a Grand Coordinator who was granted full military authority over a province would also receive the same title (the title of Grand Coordinator still took precedence).
Zong Bing (總兵)/Regional Commander
A Regional Commander was a commanding officer with operational authority over a designated area, either a province or a Zhen (鎮), or defence region. Barring the provisional Military Superintendent, it was the highest attainable position for a military official.The full title of a Regional Commander was actually Zhen Shou Zong Bing Guan (鎮守總兵官, lit. 'Region-defending commander'), with the prefix of Zhen Shou (鎮守, lit. 'Regional defence') indicating that he was responsible for the defence of the entire province or defence region. Naturally, a Regional Commander and the regiments under his command would be stationed at a fortress-settlement called Zhen Cheng (鎮城, lit. '[Defence] Region-city'), which also served as the military headquarters of the entire defence region.
A regiment under direct command of a Regional Commander was known as a Zheng Bing Ying (正兵營, lit. 'Orthodox soldier regiment'). However, after the practice of raising Biao Bing Ying became widespread, Regional Commanders also gradually switched to raising their own Biao Bing Ying.
Fu Zong Bing (副總兵)/Vice Regional Commander
A Vice Regional Commander, as the title suggests, was the second-in-command to the Regional Commander. The position came in two main types, one with the prefix Xie Shou (協守, lit. 'Assisting defence'), who was stationed together with and assisted the Regional Commander; the other with the prefix Fen Shou (分守, lit. 'Separate defence'), who guarded a sub-region within a defence region, called Lu (路), or route. Usually, a Sub-regional Vice Commander and the regiments under his command would be stationed at a smaller fortress-settlement called Lu Cheng (路城, lit. 'Route-city').
A regiment under direct command of a Vice Regional Commander was known as a Qi Bing Ying (奇兵營, lit. 'Unorthodox soldier regiment'). True to its namesake, Qi Bing Ying often engaged in unorthodox tactics such as ambush and flanking attack, and was considered the most elite among the standard regiments.
Can Jiang (參將)/Assistant Regional Commander
An Assistant Regional Commander was a commanding officer ranked below Vice Regional Commander, who advised and assisted the Regional Commander. Like Vice Regional Commander, it also came in Xie Shou and Fen Shou variety, although the majority were Sub-regional Assistant Commanders (i.e. Fen Shou prefix) that guarded either a single route or a strategic choke point (such as a major gateway of the Great Wall). An Assistant Regional Commander outranked a Mobile Corps Commander but did not have the authority to issue direct orders to the latter, as both answered only to Regional Commander.A regiment under direct command of an Assistant Regional Commander was known as a Yuan Bing Ying (援兵營, lit. 'Succoring soldier regiment'), which focused on safeguarding its designated route, as well as supporting, reinforcing, and acting in concert with other regiments during a larger military campaign.
You Ji (游擊)/Mobile Corps Commander
A Mobile Corps Commander was a commanding officer who had no designated area of responsibility, and could be deployed anywhere within the defence region as the Regional Commander deemed fit. He also had limited authority to engage the enemy or reinforce other commanders at his discretion, without awaiting orders from higher command.A regiment under direct command of a Mobile Corps Commander was known as a You Bing Ying (游兵營, lit. 'Roaming soldier regiment'), which functioned as a rapid response force.
Du Si (都司)/Supervising Commander
Originally a short form of Regional Military Commission, Du Si or Supervising Commander had since become a title of a military officer during mid-to-late Ming period, primarily responsible for leading and managing Zhong Jun (中軍, lit. 'Army of the Centre'), the headquarters unit of a regiment. Occasionally, Supervising Commander also served as either acting Assistant Regional Commander or acting Mobile Corps Commander.Supervising Commander outranked Municipal Military Commander, despite the title being introduced later. It did not have the authority to issue direct orders to Municipal Military Commander.
Shou Bei (守備)/Municipal Military Commander
A Municipal Military Commander was a commanding officer who was responsible for the defence of a single settlement or fortress, and was usually stationed at a Wei Cheng, a Suo Cheng (i.e. existing Wei-Suo System fortress-settlements), or an even smaller fortress-settlement called Bao Cheng (堡城, lit. 'Fort-town'). Most Municipal Military Commanders were subordinate to an Assistant Regional Commander, although there were some that answered directly to the Regional Commander, or even Supreme Commander.Soldiers under the command of Municipal Military Commanders were known as Shou Cheng Bing (守城兵, lit. 'City-defending soldier'), who were often drawn from Cheng Chao Jun (城操軍, lit. 'City-defending and drilling serviceman')— that is, Wei-Suo servicemen selected for city defence duty and underwent regular training, blurring the line between the two. Shou Cheng Bing were considered the lowest quality soldiers and rarely form regiments, although they still met minimum combat-capable standards. In time of need, Shou Cheng Bing also acted as a reservist force and provided replacement personnel for other regiments.
3) Junior Military Officers
Junior military officers were grassroots-level officers that assisted field commanders in various operational duties. They were appointed by the local Grand Coordinators or (rarely) Supreme Commanders, rather than the central government, and thus were not generally considered Jiang Guang (將官, lit. 'General-official') or "commander", although this wasn't a hard rule (Municipal Military Commander for example could be appointed by a Supreme Commander).Since local Grand Coordinators or Supreme Commanders appointed their respective junior military officers, there was little standardization in their titles and responsibilities. Nevertheless, junior military officers could still be broadly grouped into two categories, namely Guang Ying Guan (管營官) and Shou Tu Guan (守土官), which will be elaborated below.
3.1) Guan Ying Guan (管營官)/Regiment-managing Officers
Regiment-managing Officers were junior military officers subordinate to their respective Regiment Commanders, responsible for leading small units, executing command orders, managing troop training and so on. Nevertheless, it should be noted that there was little standardisation at the regimental level, as different commanders organised and structured their respective regiments differently. There were also clear differences between regiments raised in North China and regiments raised in South China.
For example, unit hierarchy of the Qi Jia Jun (戚家軍) was as follow:
- Wu (伍, five personnel) — Dui (隊, 12 personnel) — Shao (哨, 49 personnel) — Guan (官, 297 personnel) — Zong (總, roughly 940 personnel) — Da Ying (大營, roughly 4,000 personnel)
For comparison, Ji Defence Region Infantry Regiment led by the same commander was organised as follow:
- Wu (伍, five personnel) — Dui (隊, 12 personnel) — Qi (旗, 37 personnel) — Ju (局, 112 personnel) — Si (司, 449 personnel) — Bu (部, 889 personnel) — Ying (營, 2,699 personnel)
This shows that there could be considerable variations between regiments, even those led by the same commander at different times. As such, the following list of Regiment-managing Officers only represented the most generic structure of a North China defence region regiment.
Ying Jiang (營將)/Regiment Commander
A Regiment Commander, as its name suggests, was a commanding officer appointed to lead a single regiment on behalf of a higher-ranked commander who had multiple regiments under his command, and thus could not personally lead each one. Usually, Regiment Commanders led Biao Bing Ying on behalf of military overseers, who generally lacked combat training.
(Note: Regiment Commander was not a junior military officer)
Zhong Jun Guan (中軍官)/Officer of the Army of the Centre
An Officer of the Army of the Centre was one of the positions that a Supervising Commander could hold, with the primary responsibilities of relaying orders from the commander to the rest of the regiment.Zuo Ying Guan (坐營官)/Military Official on-duty
A Military Official on-duty was another position that a Supervising Commander could hold, the primary responsibilities of which were to manage and lead the regiment. Oftentimes, Officer of the Army of the Centre and Military Official on-duty were merged into one position, called Zuo Ying Zhong Jun Guan (坐營中軍官), and held by a single officer.Qian Zong (千總)/Battalion Officer
A Battalion Officer typically commanded a military unit of two companies, totalling one thousand soldiers, called a Shao (哨, lit. 'Sentry'), or Battalion.Ba Zong (把總)/Company Officer
A Company Officer typically commanded a military unit of ten platoons, totalling five hundred soldiers, called a Si (司, lit. 'Bureau') or Company.Guan Dui (管隊)/Platoon Officer
A Platoon Officer typically commanded a military unit of ten teams, totalling fifty soldiers, called a Dui (隊) or Platoon. Sometimes a single platoon could have up to two Platoon Officers.Wu Zhang (伍長)/Team Leader
A Team Leader commanded a small military unit of five soldiers, called a Wu (伍), or Team.Other than troop leaders, there were also many specialist officers, including but not limited to:
- Qi Gu Guan (旗鼓官, lit. 'Banner and drum officer'), an officer who managed the relaying of orders with flag and drum signals;
- Qi Pai Guan (旗牌官, lit. 'Banner and badge officer'), an officer who managed communication with runners;
- Tang Bao Guan (塘報官, lit. 'Scout officer'), a scout officer;
- Shen Qi Ba Zong (神器把總, lit. 'Divine tool officer'), and officer who managed the firearms division and attached artillery.
3.2) Shou Tu Guan (守土官)/Territory-defending Officers
Territory-defending Officers were junior military officers subordinate to Municipal Military Commanders, and were tasked with defending various forts, fortlets, watch towers, and villages. They came in all sort of titles with little to no standardisation, including but not limited to:- Cao Shou (操守, Military Officer in Charge of Training and Defense Affairs)
- Bei Yu (備禦, lit. 'Warder')
- Ti Diao (提調, lit. 'Promoter')
- Fang Shou Guan (防守官, lit. 'Defence officer')
- Qian Zong (千總) and Ba Zong (把總), sharing the same titles with Battalion Officer and Company Officer respectively, but with very different duties.
