About the black woodpecker Dryocopus martius (Piciformes), its distribution and biology, as well as the questions of why the beak does not get stuck in the wood when hammering and how woodpeckers minimize the cranial absorption of shocks during their pecking performance.
Distribution and habitat preferences of the black woodpecker
The black woodpecker is widespread throughout the central and northern Palearctic region and occurs in lowlands as well as in mountainous areas up to the tree line. The highest nesting cavities have been discovered at altitudes above 2200 m.
The species is quite adaptable with regard to the forest areas it inhabits and, with appropriate acclimatization, can also breed in urban parks. Originally, it likely inhabited dense forests near mountainous regions, predominantly composed of beech and scattered spruce trees. Mixed forests of oak and pine are also commonly used as habitat.
This woodpecker species feeds on wood dwelling insects, which it locates by tapping on cavities in the wood and which it exposes by vigorously hammering against the tree trunk with its beak. Tree-dwelling ant species are particularly often favored. The black woodpecker is generally territorial and only migrates in winter under very harsh conditions, and even then, it typically travels short distances only. In winter, this woodpecker likes to expose ant nests in order to continue to have a food supply during the cold season.
Mating and nest cavity
The black woodpecker usually begins its courtship in March. The two partners are seasonally monogamous, and further matings by the same partners in subsequent years can happen. Various tree species are suitable for excavating the nest cavity. However, beech trees are preferred due to the stability of their wood.
Research about how to get the beak out of the wood again after hammering in it
Authors S. Van Wassenbergh et al. (2022a) investigated how black woodpeckers manage to withdraw their beaks from wood after boring into it, whereas a nail driven into wood by a carpenter always remains firmly embedded. To study this, the authors filmed two birds in Central European zoos with a highspeed camera and analyzed the function of the beak and skull in single-frame images. Their findings showed that the independent mobility of the upper and lower peaks allows the woodpecker to, in effect, „work“ its beak out of the wood stepwise.
Research about how the shock of the beak impact on the wood is absorbed by the skull bones
In a separate study, S. Van Wassenbergh et al. (2022b) examined three woodpecker species to investigate whether the skull structure actually acts like a bicycle helmet by absorbing the shock of the beak impact on the wood. Their studies refuted this hypothesis. It turned out that the stiffness of the skeleton, especially in the skull area, is what makes the successful tapping performance possible in the first place. Using numerical simulations, the authors were also able to show that braincase size and shape are designed to withstand intracranial pressure well.
Mr. Palmarak has always gotten what he wanted in life. He stands before the enormous window front of his apartment on the 25th floor in the heart of the city, shifting his weight first onto his right leg until his hip aches, then onto his left. Now he scratches his ear thoughtfully as he gazes out over the countless rooftops and the streets teeming with people and cars, all the way to the city borders, where a dense forest begins, resolutely keeping the city in its place. How he knows this view down to the smallest detail. And he knows it in every season and in every kind of weather. For Mr. Palmarak, there is nothing more boring, nothing more predictable, nothing that is not simply a repetition of everything he has seen all over the world for over seventy years.
People keep living the same lives over and over again because they are instinctively driven to achieve goals that are, in reality, unattainable. Mr. Palmarak can’t help but grin; they’re basically like the characters in a cheap 1980s computer game: wherever they go, one obstacle after another falls in their path. The fight against these obstacles is like tilting at windmills, a game you can’t win—what a waste of life. What is the root cause of this evil of recurring obstacles that prevents most people from progressing? Their emotionality, their empathy, their critical conscience, their constant questioning of right and wrong, of justice and injustice. In this way, they continually create their own obstacles. How all these repetitions torture Mr. Palmarak with unspeakable boredom. Even as a child, he knew better than these unbearable little people who constantly question whether their actions might ultimately be wrong. He never asked himself that question. Pity, justice, honor, morality, or love—never in his life did he waste his time on such nonsense. He always took what he wanted, and everyone always let it happen, no arguments, no fights, no accusations, no trials, no punishments: no obstacles, no barriers. His whole life was a steeply upward-striving staircase, which he shot up almost as if on a dynamic stairlift.
He is now a powerful man who possesses everything a person can possibly possess. What he still believes he desires in his deepest dreams and puts into action the very next morning bores him unbearably by the same evening. What a punishment life is, Mr. Palmarak thinks to himself now, when boredom makes you lose all desire for life. Not just for his own life, but the desire to endure all these many little lives beneath him—that has vanished from him. And it has been gone for quite some time.
And when he recently received a truly unusual opportunity, he was, for once, not bored. Indeed, his old, long-suffering heart had begun to beat so hard that it almost stopped altogether.
The staff at his observatory, perched atop the enormous skyscraper where he lives, had told him about unusual acoustic signals. And although a paralyzing boredom had immediately spread through his body at the thought of inexplicable signals from space, he agreed to pay the observatory a visit. He promptly sent all the staff out, so tedious did he find their repetitive prattle.
And now, as he stood alone before the large monitor that digitally visualized the view through the giant telescope, a luminous sign suddenly appeared, one he had never seen before. It moved as if it were alive, undulating back and forth across the screen, constantly changing its shape, until Mr. Palmarak suddenly thought he recognized a face. Whether it was a human-looking face or not, Mr. Palmarak really couldn’t judge, after all, he hadn’t looked closely at a human being in over seventy years. And this is what the face spoke to him: I am from another world, far, far away, billions of light-years distant. We are a very highly advanced civilization. We cooperate with civilizations elsewhere in the universe, provided they are benevolent. We destroy all others. We have chosen you because we want to know from you whether your world must be spared or destroyed. Is it a good or a bad world?
Yes, Mr. Palmarak is not nearly as stupid as he is apparently perceived to be in extraterrestrial worlds. Of course, he knew which answer would have ensured the perpetual continuation of his perpetual boredom. But boredom had long since become far too tedious for Mr. Palmarak. And so he answered, without ever having grappled with the question of good and bad: „I’m sorry to say, but the world I live in is a bad world.“
The thought of simply wiping out humanity made, for the first time in his life, a brief surge of adrenaline. Something different, something completely new. Mr. Palmarak had never been able to find anything exciting. But now he felt as if, for a brief moment—namely, while he was making his decision—he was considerably less bored than usual.
The face on the large monitor adopted an understanding expression and said: You only have fourteen days left. And then it vanished.
And now those fourteen days are almost over. To be precise, for thirteen and a half days he has been brooding over the eternally agonizing way in which time progresses in this world.
Night has fallen, and Mr. Palmarak still stands before the large window, gazing out over the bustling city lights.
For Mr. Palmarak today, it is a truly delightful sight. The anticipation that something entirely different would soon happen, and at his own behest, gave him an unfamiliar feeling of blissful contentment.
Although he has never smoked, an extra-long cigarette now lies beside him, for he intends to savor it once the spectacle of his world’s end has begun. His decision, his will, his power. And his power, which he himself has now ennobled and elevated to the power to destroy them all.
Almost boring again, he thinks, when he considers how easy it was for him to seize power. And yet, somehow an uplifting challenge, considering that this would be the last event Mr. Palmarak would have to witness. An almost interesting undertaking, if one generously ignores the fact that he will unfortunately no longer be able to witness the outcome.
Shooting stars streak across the night sky. A perfectly ordinary celestial event for Mr. Palmarak, one that bores him to tears. Pieces of meteors enter the Earth’s atmosphere and burn up like a gigantic, enormous firework display. He hears clacking sounds, sees pebble-sized projectiles shatter on some of the roofs, while others punch tiny holes in them.
And there, again fragments of the meteor, this time larger ones, blaze high in the sky and, like a tremendous rain of boulder-sized drops, descend not only upon the city but upon the entire world surrounding it, destroying every house, every tower, and every tree in a single breath.
But even before the skyscraper and its builder crash down with a deafening roar, Mr. Palmarak has enough time to glance at his watch. The fourteen days aren’t up yet, he realizes with horror in the final seconds of his life. Before Mr. Palmarak has even been allowed to do the only thing that interests him—namely, destroy the entire world to interrupt the continuous flow of unlimited boredom—an ordinary natural phenomenon has actually intervened. For the world itself, it makes no difference, Mr. Palmarak thinks to himself before he plunges together with his window and expensive marble floor into the abyss. But his own life, so given away, so wasted, so squandered, that even in the deep fall, while his body collides with all sorts of components of the skyscraper and is thereby practically torn to pieces, his last movement is only a deep sigh of unspeakable boredom.
I depend on your support. Each kind of support is of course appreciated, but especially at least a smaller coffee would make me even happier: https://ko-fi.com/sfwirth
Why are ants so attractive for scientific research? The ecological and biological diversity in ants is a wide field for different research approaches. One is concerning not the ants themselves, but their mite cohabitants. I in 2009 studied and described the phoretic mite Histiostoma blomquisti together with John C. Moser, who hosted my research. Results are summarized here from my recent perspective.
An ant species that reproduces asexually through parthenogenesis and has neither males nor female workers is a novel phenomenon for science due to this combination of characteristics. A recent research paper about an ant species native to Japan but other authors is briefly presented here.
The biological and ecological diversity of ants with some examples
Ants (Formicidae) are known for their biological and ecological diversity. Leafcutter ants cultivate a fungus on which they feed, thus acting as farmers. The invasive red fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, is a master at rapidly spreading as a neozoon under suitable ecological conditions.
Honeypot ants have evolved independently multiple times in genera such as Myrmecocystus and Camponotus. Worker ants assigned to this specific purpose consume so much food that their abdomens swell up like a barrel. In times of scarcity, these „honeypots“ regurgitate stored food after appropriate stimulation by other workers.
Ant nests as special habitats with a high biodiversity of very different organisms
Ants are also known to host symbionts, commensals or parasites from other animal groups in their nests, such as mites (see my work with J.C. Moser, 2010) or other insects such as butterfly larvae. However, ants themselves can also act as parasites on other ants.
Why I am generally interested in ants and how I came to my own ant-mite association studies
My research into ants and mite cohabitants in ant nests began in 2007 during a research stay in Louisiana (USA) with forest researcher John C. Moser. My enthusiasm for ants was sparked by the realization that an entire ant colony could be kept under laboratory conditions. The opportunity to study such a complex habitat as an ant nest up close inspired me first to scientifically investigate phoretic mites of the Histiostomatidae (Astigmata) in nests of the leafcutter ant Atta texana and then the invasive red fire ant Solenopsis invicta. Since my scientific publications on these topics, I have occasionally continued to work on smaller ant projects, which I have primarily published in the form of short video documentaries.
What does the phoretic mite Histiostoma blomquisti in nests of the red important fire ant in Louisiana (USA) and what is a phoretic mite?
The mite Histiostima blomquisti (Histiostomatidae, Astigmata) is adapted to life in the nests of the red imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta (Myrmicinae). So-called myrmecophilic organisms possess adaptations to survive the otherwise hostile conditions in ant nests. They usually manage to avoid being recognized as nest intruders by the worker ants. Some organisms take on the appearance of ants, others mimic ant behavior, or are so well armored that they can withstand attacks.
The dispersal stage of the mite Histiostoma blomquisti arrives in the newly founded nest with the mated queens after their successful nuptial flight. The tiny mites are attached to their carriers by suction cups and are seemingly not perceived as a nuisance as long as their numbers are not too large.
The dispersal stage of the mite, which also possesses a strong protective cuticle, is during this transport protected from dehydration and due to its very efficient suckers from mechanical removal. However, the mite’s life strategy dictates that the dispersal stage (deutonymph) must develop further to mature into a reproductive adult (deutonymph shown on Figs. 1)-4)).
Under suitable conditions, the deutonymphs use chemosensors on their legs to detect a stimulus that causes them to descend from the young queen. The exact conditions under which the mites develop and reproduce are unknown. However, observations suggest that they rely on plant debris such as leaves and wood chips found in the nest, which are decomposing to such an extent that the conditions remain quite dry. I suspect that, as with other histiostomatids, fungal growth constitutes the primary food source. This fungal growth is inhibited by fungicides produced by the mites themselves and is always in a state of decomposition in certain areas, where bacterial growth likely also begins. This mixture of bacteria and fungi might form the food source that the free-living mite larvae ingest with their filter-feeding mouthparts. Only a small number of deutonymphs enter the new nest per young queen. These then reproduce. As long as food conditions are good, several generations may occur within a few weeks, increasing the mite numbers significantly. During their development, it is primarily the larger adult mites that produce allomones (defense substances) in a significant quantity in the same glands where they also produce fungicides. These allomones are citral-based and act as a deterrent to predators, here worker ants.
As soon as living conditions for the mites deteriorate, only deutonymphs, the dispersal stages, are produced instead of new, free-living stages. These deutonymphs then depend on surviving until new conditions for further development arise within the ant nest. According to my findings, this seems to be very rarely the case in nests in the wild. Therefore, the deutonymphs wait until they find a suitable carrier on which they can remain for what may take months until suitable developmental conditions emerge. While waiting for their carrier, namely one of the active queens (the nests are usually polygynous), the deutonymphs aggregate closely together and form clusters by attaching themselves to each other with their suckers. They find each other via olfactory orientation and recognize other deutonymphs via aggregation pheromones, produced by their conspecifics. This cluster formation allows them to survive longer, as they protect each other from drying out. Furthermore, the deutonymphs are significantly smaller than the adults, which means that the allmones accumulate as a result of cluster formation and can thus exert their effect against attackers more efficiently than a single individual.
Since the deutonymphs must survive for months, the active queens of the nest are the necessary transporters. Deutonymphal mite clusters are not suitable as a permanent protective zone until new conditions for the mites‘ further development arise, as they are limited in terms of the maximum number of mites that can participate in a cluster. Furthermore, they offer less protection against attacks by ant worker and against harmful bacterial and fungal infections. On the queen, however, much larger numbers of deutonymphs can find suitable places, which also increases the efficiency of their chemical secretions.
Unlike a worker ant, which only lives for 2 to 6 months depending on the caste, a queen’s lifespan can be up to seven years. When a queen approaches the deutonymph cluster, the mites climb onto her in such large numbers that 100 to almost 200 deutonymphs can be distributed across her upper body, so that under low magnification, the queen appears to be speckled with many tiny dots under a stereomicroscope (Fig. 5), videos 1) & 2)).
The deutonymphs enjoy several advantages while perched on the queen. Not only does the queen’s longevity, as already mentioned, guarantee the mites won’t land in a dead end, but the queen’s surface also protects the deutonymphs from dehydration. Furthermore, fungal and bacterial infections are prevented by the diligent grooming of the queen by her worker ants (Fig. 5, videos 1) & 2)).
Since the red fire ant occasionally also builds its nests near water, heavy rainfall poses a risk of the nest being flooded. A special adaptation of Solenopsis invicta to this situation is a particular behavior in such emergencies: The worker ants cling to each other at the water’s surface, forming a floating raft with the queen securely positioned in the center. Researchers can utilize this behavior to isolate an ant colony from its nest dirt or soil (video 2)). In any case, the queen, as the transporter of the mite deutonymphs, thus also simultaneously represents a guarantee of safety in emergencies, such as the flooding of the nest.
However, the special attention a queen receives from her worker ants could theoretically also have a detrimental effect on the deutonymphs. This is because the worker ants strive to keep their queen clean. But the deutonymphs resist these grooming activities in two ways. Firstly, the repellent allomones produced by each mite are sufficiently strong due to the large number of deutonymphs. This is noticeable because worker ants that attempt to groom their queen in mite-infested areas visibly recoil and then restrict themselves to grooming body regions with few or no mites. Secondly, when observed with a light microscope and reflected light, the mites exhibit regular movements of the muscles responsible for their sucker apparatus (Figs 6) & 7), videos 1) & 2)). Whenever disturbed by the worker ants, the deutonymphs react by moving their suckers. This serves to constantly readjust or reposition the mite’s stable position. These activities are apparently not very energy-intensive, since deutonymphs, unlike the free-living developmental stages of the mite, do not possess a functional mouth and therefore cannot ingest food.
If the grooming behavior of the worker ants causes a mechanical displacement of the mites, the deutonymphs remain conspicuously visible in the area of the queen’s intersegmental folds, where they apparently find a more stable hold. Mites according to my observations do not visibly harm the life conditions and reproductivity of the queens. However, when a queen is covered with very high numbers of mite deutonymphs, she can show signs of a slightly limited mobility, but which also seemed not to negatively affect her reproductivity. I therefore suspect that the number of mites that accumulate on the queen under natural conditions does not significantly impair her. However, I did not conduct a statistically representative comparison with queens without mites.
The mites of the species Histiostoma blomquisti influence the microclimate in the nest of the red fire ant. The free-living stages chemically modify their environment by releasing fungicides, aggregation pheromones, sex pheromones, and allomones. It cannot be ruled out that they thereby perform a beneficial function for the ants within the ant nest.
I have not yet examined my mite preparations to determine the extent to which the individual mite stages, particularly the deutonymphs, hyperphoretically introduce fungal spores into the ant nest and feed on the fungus that grows from them. This is known to occur in other species of the Histiostomatidae.
Based on my observations, as already mentioned above, I can imagine that the mite Histiostoma blomquisti may fulfill a beneficial function within the ant nest by chemically shaping the microclimatic and microbiological conditions during the decomposition of plant material within the nest, thus preventing wider growth of mold or bacterial blooms. However, I assume that in case it were finally possible to cultivate this mite species in large numbers under laboratory conditions, it could potentially also be used to control the invasive ants. For example, by artificially introducing significantly more individual mites into nests in the field than would occur under natural conditions. These could infest the queens in such large numbers that they might become incapacitated. It may also even be beneficial to cover deutonymphs with entomopathogenic fungal spores, so that the germinating fungi in the nest first destroy many worker ants and parts of the brood, and then spores would ultimately be carried directly and even in large numbers to the queens, which then had the potential to eliminate a whole nest.
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Another scientific approach of other researchers, which I would like to highlight here
However, bark beetles and their mites have played a more significant role in my further scientific career. But my enthusiasm for ant research has remained, however, which is why, within the framework of this science communication article, I would like to highlight a recent publication by other ant researchers about a species that very interestingly has neither workers nor males.
About the most common social organization of ant colonies
The majority of known ant species have a queen which is mated by a male during a nuptial flight and which then establishes a nest in which she produces female workers, winged young queens, and males. Polymorphisms are common and usually involve workers that look different. However, species that do not produce males and species that lack workers are also known.
Parasitic ant Temnothorax kinomurai as unusual case of queens producing parthenogenetically only other queens
But a species that possesses neither males nor workers was previously unknown to science. Or, to put it more cautiously: the species Temnothorax kinomurai (Myrmicinae), native to some regions of Japan, had long been suspected of being the only known species to which these aspects apply. However, definitive evidence for this had not yet been available.
The authors K. Hamaguchi et al. (2026) have now been able to scientifically prove that T. kinomurai produces exclusively further queens through parthenogenesis, i.e., asexual reproduction. The evolutionary advantages of this strategy are obvious. Each young ant is theoretically able to establish an own nest. This contrasts with the strategy of other ant species, which only produce a limited number of males and young queens at specific times, who then undertake a nuptial flight. Only those queens that successfully complete this flight can establish their own nest.
A rare species in Japan
But why is T. kinomurai, despite its strategy of producing exclusively „royal“ offspring, a rather rare species, when one might assume it should be able to spread like wildfire? And do the queens then take over the tasks of worker ants in their mother’s nest?
The life strategy of Temnothorax kinomurai
T. kinomurai is a parasitic species that parasitizes the related species Temnothorax makora. Invading queens of the parasitic ant kill the T. makora nest mother and some of her workers with a sting (Fig. 9)). Remaining workers from the parasitized nest care for the new queen and her offspring. Despite this unique biological strategy, the offspring cannot indefinitely take over new nests through parasitism because T. makora nest takeovers are often unsuccessful, as the authors observed under their laboratory conditions.
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Fig. 9) A) gynomorphic T. kinomurai trying to sting a T. makora worker, B) gynomorphic and intermorphic T. kinomurai queens; K. Hamaguchi et all. (2026), creative commons http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
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Since T. kinomurai has no workers, the polymorphism of workers, otherwise common in ants, is absent. However, the species is still affected by the phenomenon of distinct morphology, namely in form of a dimorphism. The offspring can include two different morphs of new queens: winged gynomorphic and wingless intermorphic ones (Fig. 9)).
In our 21st century, nothing seems more out of place to me than wars and news about modern military strategies. Surely none of this can point the way to the future, and yet there have been wars as long as there have been people. And yet their future continues to this day. Am I contradicting myself then? No, because wars were waged differently in antiquity, on battlefields and not beyond. But even ancient military strategists and their successes don’t primarily interest me, unless such an enormous feat was accomplished that it piques my curiosity from a scientific perspective.
Like the legendary march of the Carthaginian general Hannibal, who crossed the Alps to wage war against the Roman Empire, a surprise attack that was initially successful. The interesting part is the legendary: How did he manage to cross the difficult and inhospitable high mountains with elephants, horses, and tens of thousands of soldiers? Where did he cross them? What species of elephants did he lead? And what scientific evidence is there for this?
Crossing the Alps and first archeological/biological evidence for the existence of war elephants during the Second Punic War
In the autumn of 218 BC, during the Second Punic War, the Carthaginian general Hannibal Barcas crossed the Alps to Italy, coming from Spain, with approximately 70,000 soldiers to launch a surprise attack on Rome. According to historical accounts, he also led 37 war elephants. R. M. Martínez Sánchez et al. (2026) recently discovered the right carpal bone of a war elephant near Cordoba, Spain, possibly the first evidence of the existence of these animals.
The exact route Hannibal took when crossing the Alps is a matter of considerable debate among scholars. Several routes are considered possible. Historical accounts and archaeological findings that would identify a particular route as the most likely provide only scant clues. There are archaeological discoveries, such as the remains of horses that Hannibal allegedly led in large numbers. However, it is difficult to rule out who else might have been riding in the mountains during that period. Elephant remains would be a much more helpful indicator, but so far, no such remains have been found along the presumed Alpine passes.
Historical sources include Livy (59 BC – 17 AD) and Polybius (ca. 200 BC – 120 BC). They tell us that the expedition began in the Rhône Valley and led through the Isère Valley into the Alps. Upon crossing the pass, the soldiers were said to have been greeted by a view of the Po Valley. The entire crossing of the Alps is said to have taken 16 days. Human and animal hardships occurred, particularly during the ascent, which for example involved battles with the Celtic Allobroges. Sudden cold spells and scree slopes also hampered the Alpine march. It was reported that all the elephants carried survived the crossing. However, all but Hannibal’s own elephant subsequently succumbed to the cold.
A possible route is a northern one, following paths along the Isère River and then through the Pontcharra and La Rochette gorges, and from there, for example, over the Col du Mont Cenis to the Po Valley. A central route, which would have led, for instance, over the Pelvoux Massif to the Durance River, also aligns with ancient accounts. A southern route through the Drôme Valley, over the Col de Grimone, and then along the Queyras Gorge is currently considered particularly likely, supported in this case by archaeological finds that include possible horse droppings such as dung or bones. Climate models indicate that the crossing of the Alps was facilitated by a slight warm period and a concomitant higher tree line.
That war elephants were used in antiquity in Asia and North Africa has been sufficiently documented by historical writings, ancient busts, and ancient coin finds. Which species were used, however, remains uncertain. Clearly taxonomically identifiable archaeological evidence is lacking. And yet, it can be inferred from the aforementioned sources that for example in the region of Carthage there existed a strikingly small species of elephant that outwardly resembled the African savanna elephant with its large ears and concave back. Researchers predominantly suspect that it was a rather small subspecies of the savanna elephant, which some scientists therefore refer to as Loxodonta africana pharaohensis.
Due to the lack of taxonomically relevant biological material, it cannot be ruled out that it also might have been a subspecies of African forest elephant or a separate, unknown species. At least it is known that Hannibal’s army crossed the Alps with dozens of elephants, and that the majority of these were North African elephants. The impression my illustrations of the event create is therefore not the impression a contemporary witness who saw the entire army would confirm. Only a few Asian elephants, which are shown in my illustrations of the march over the Alps by Hannibal, were included. They were probably reserved for the highest-ranking officers of the army. According to historical accounts, at least one them existed for sure and was named „Surus“. He was Hannibal’s war elephant. This animal is also said to have been the only one still alive at the victorious Battle of the Trebia.
The North African elephant was subsequently used as a working animal by the Romans. It was for example employed in animal hunts in the large arenas of the Roman Empire. There is evidence that the distinct species or subpopulation of an African elephant was eradicated still during Roman antiquity.
The history of war elephants originally began in India (Asian elephants) and from there subsequently was adopted by kingdoms of more western countries. T. R. Trautmann (2015) in his book tells the long story of domesticated wild elephants beginning in India and later participating in some of the most famous wars in antiquity, such as in Europe and Southeast Asia. The author reconstructed that Indian kings practiced a special form of domestication of elephants by capturing wild adults and then training them for their final purposes. A side effect of that principle was a royal protection status of wild elephant populations in antiquity.
What can the discovered elephant remains from Spain contribute to the knowledge about war elephants during the Second Punic War?
The authors R. M. Martínez Sánchez et al. (2026) discovered a single elephant carpal bone at the archaeological site Colina de los Quemados in Cordoba. Since the bone contained no useful biological material, a more in-depth study, for example at the molecular level, is rather impossible. The authors therefore cannot contribute to determining whether it belonged to an Asian elephant, a subspecies of an African savanna or forest elephant, or even a separate extinct species. However, they consider the bone fragment to be the remains of an animal used as a war elephant in the region, and rather than a bone that was imported in its present form during this time for any applied purposes.
The authors consider any practical use of such a small bone fragment unlikely die to a archeological war contrxt. The sediments in which the bone was found undoubtedly date back to the time of the Second Punic War. Therefore, a connection to Hannibal’s campaign across the Alps exists. However, the authors assume that this connection can only be indirect. The elephant may have belonged to a group imported by ship, to which Hannibal’s elephants also belonged, but this particular elephant appears to be one of those animals left behind in Spain, where it became involved in other conflicts, such as those led by Hannibal’s brother. In any case, the overall circumstances of the find suggest that it is an animal that died in a warlike context, as indicated by the war munitions found nearby. The researchers also do not rule out the possibility that other elephants arrived in Spain by ship during this period, but were not mentioned in historical accounts. The find apparently represents the first direct archaeological evidence for the existence of war elephants in Carthage and western Europe.
Species complexes often appear in the animal kingdom, especially within the Arthropoda. Complexes are closely related species that are mostly the result of very recent speciation events. Some might even still be at the subspecies level, not yet having crossed the boundaries to become independent single species. Others can be characterized as representing separate species, but they might look so similar to each other that taxonomists may have difficulty distinguishing them morphologically. Although DNA sequencing can of course be used nowadays, morphological distinctiveness is still an important criterion for conducting biodiversity research. Therefore, it is helpful to discover trait complexes that have not previously been used for identification, or at least not sufficiently.
A clear species‘ determination or description requires the availability of at least deutonymphs and adukts
Mites of the Histiostomatidae (Astigmata) go through four free-living nymphal stages before molting into adults. It is generally true that all these stages can exhibit taxonomically relevant characteristics. However, meaningful descriptions of a species can already be made by knowing the deutonymph (phoretic dispersal stage) and the adults (males, females).
It is always the best basis for taxonomic studies to have a mite culture available
However, there are species groups so highly cryptic that the classic sets of characteristics of all these developmental stages are not always easily distinguishable. In such cases, it can be helpful (besides DNA sequencing) to consider ecological characteristics, for example, whether there is polymorphism among the males, whether males even exist, or whether females engage in diploid parthenogenesis. For all the questions mentioned here, however, it is necessary to find the species under investigation either in all its developmental stages in the original substrate or to culture individual specimens found in the laboratory.
About the most simple taxonomic method, but which can be easily prone to error
However, the deutonymph stage is still too often used for identification only because it is easily found on its phoretic transport insects as a dispersal stage. This particularly simple method is also particularly prone to error, since deutonymphs can look deceptively similar due to close relationships, whereas the adults, if present, would be in some cases easily distinguishable.
About the relevance of previously neglected morphological character sets
Species identification in Astigmata mites based on deutonymphs only will always lead to an underestimation of the true biodiversity. In cases where all relevant developmental stages of a species are present—at least adults and deutonymphs—but mites from different samples appear still morphologically indistinguishable, it is helpful to consider previously neglected sets of characters. These primarily concern the adults. They include, for example, fine details of the filter-feeding mouthparts or details of certain cuticular structures. I introduced one example of the latter in my PhD thesis (2004): the cuticular shield on the upper surface of the proterosoma. It is shown again here below.
About the lattice-like protetosoma shield in Histiostomatidae
A striking feature of adult mites of a subgroup of the Histiostomatidae (Astigmata) is a highly sclerotized area on the upper surface of the proterosoma. Its lattice-like structure forms a taxonomically relevant symmetrical pattern of windows, for which I introduced a nomenclature in my PhD thesis (2004). This area represents a site of important muscle origins
About my introduced nomenclature for the single aspects of this character set
I named the single windows of this cuticular shield according to, what is used to describe a turtle shell. There are paired windows and unpaired windows, all being symmetrical. This character set is best recognizable, when using the resolution of a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The pattern of windows is varying between species or species groups and thus is of taxonomic/systematic relevance.
In histological cross sections, which I performed with Histiostoma palustre in 2003, it was visible that the dorsal cuticle shield in cross-section resembled corrugated sheet metal; the thickness of the cuticle in all its areas always seemed to be more or less the same.
How does the complex anatomy of muscles in the proterosoma of a mite of the Astigmata generally look like? And about the more stable resilience if the proterosoma shield in Histiostomatidae
I used a SEM cross section through the proterosoma of a larger specimen of Acarus sp. (Acaridae, Astigmata), thus a species of another astigmatic mite family, to show the pattern of muscles three-dimensionally, which origin dorsally and then attach to gnathosoma structures for mobility, apodemes for the mobility of mouthparts and apodemes for the first legs. Acaridae do not have the conspicuous windows-pattern-sclerite in this area, thus it is just a comparative visualisation, how about muscles might look like in Histiostomatidae.
I interpret the dorsal sclerite with windows pattern in Histiostomatidae as an evolutionary adaptation to the very small size of these mites for a better and more stable resilience against the permanent muscle activity.
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SEM cross section through the proterosoma of Acarus sp., 1) normal SEM, 2) negative version of the same SEM, 3) close-up of the negative version, 4) cross section through the area of legs one in Histiostoma sp. to visualize the general important dorso -ventral muscle anatomie throughout a mite’s body
I would like to discuss my concerns that escalating military conflicts, coupled with rising nationalism and a growing number of public figures with autocratic tendencies, are jeopardizing the future of our world, much as the astrophysicist Stephen Hawking predicted. Using Germany as an example, I want to discuss these worrying trends. Where does this new right wing populist ideologies come from? Where is it being fostered? Do non political groups like some dueling fraternities or the Reichsbürger movement play a role in this?
Me as a teenager
The world has changed since I was an ambitious and forward-looking young teenager. Left-leaning, with intellectual and creative artistic aspirations, I was born in the late hippie era and spent my youth in the 1980s. Right-wing was considered bad, left wing was normal in my school environment. I always wanted to be a scientist, and that’s what I became.
About a lack of education
Education has always been important to me. It appalls me how modern right-wing populism in Germany rigorously denies everything complex and nuanced. Human-caused climate change: right-wing populism doesn’t recognize such a thing because geological, meteorological, and physical-chemical connections aren’t conducive to winning over the masses. This suits them well; the education system is suffering, and German pupils perform poorly in PISA studies compared to their European neighbors. Unemployment is high, and the poorly educated suffer disproportionately. This is how the angry citizens („Wutbürger“) have emerged, someone who needs someone to tell them against whom to direct their anger—of course against everything they can’t understand. The lower the level of education, the greater the lack of independence and the greater the need for leaders. Democracy and the rule of law are no longer sacrosanct values.
Negative role models
People want to tighten borders again, prefer to keep to themselves, wave their national colors, and chant „Foreigners out!“ Often strikingly similar to the enthusiastic masses of National Socialism. Now, the Nazi Party no longer exists. But we seemingly instead have the AfD, which boasts speakers who, at least for me, are difficult to distinguish from Joseph Goebbels in terms of rhetoric and intention. The world is fostering all of this; people in high positions, who should actually be political role models, are now the role models for those who are currently shouting „Foreigners out!“ in Germany. Furthermore the global lust for war increasingly makes every form of violence seem like a legitimate means.
But who in our own country are actually shaping the ideology of the modern right? From whom does the AfD learn to be the way it is? I have had insights from my personal environment about dueling student fraternities. This has led me to believe that the far right influence exerted by at least some fraternities is not being addressed seriously enough by the official authorities. The public only becomes aware of what goes on behind closed doors when scandals come to light, such as the humiliation of a Jewish guest or an antisemitic and racist pamphlet that was accidentally leaked to the press (see links below, articles in German).
Then there are the so-called „Reichsbürger“ (Citizens of the Reich), who believe they are not subject to the German rule of law. And the powerful influence of online channels, which fuel the anger of these disaffected citizens, should not be underestimated.
What our future goals should be
What the world needs, and what Germany needs, is more education, more instruction in ethical values, more role models who stand for reason and future oriented action. The increasing man-made climate catastrophe should be a global priority. We have no time for wars, autocracies, and imperialism!
It’s about a phoretic mite that is persistently waiting on an inflorescence for a transport opportunity. Phoresy, also known as phoresis, is a life-style strategy in which a smaller organism relies on being transported by a larger organism to travel from one habitat to the next. This strategy occurs in various mite taxa, including the Mesostigmata, the Trombidiformes, the paraphyletic Oribatida, and the Astigmata. The mite featured in my video belongs to the Mesostigmata and extends the phoretic strategy by relying on leaving a host and essentially waiting at a transfer station for a new opportunity to get on another host (synonymously carrier or transporter can be used).
An unexpected behavioral observation during a video-shoot8ng
The dandelion inflorescence can be a complex habitat with astonishing biodiversity. Arthropods such as insects are particularly common. Some species remain there permanently, feeding on the petals and reproducing there; others are only brief visitors seeking nectar and pollen. At the end of April 2025, I noticed that dandelions were predominantly blooming in a dry meadow in the Rehberge urban park in Berlin. The moth Pyrausta despicata was often seen on the inflorescences, feeding on nectar. I originally wanted to document this with video shots from many close-up perspectives. However, I was unexpectedly confronted with interactions between three different arthropods, which I documented in my video. A mite of the Parasitidae (Mesostigmata), possibly of the genus Parasitellus, initially waited motionless at the edge of the inflorescence before seemingly launching an „attack“ against the significantly larger moth. The moth reacted to the touch with a sudden, abrupt recoil.
Interpretation attempt of the observed interactions as part of a complex dispersal strategy
What was the mite doing there and why did it seemingly attack the moth? The apparent attack was in reality the mite testing the moth to see if it could be a suitable carrier. With hair-like sensory organs on its legs, the mite quickly recognized that the moth was unsuitable as a phoretic host. This is because mites of the Parasitidae (Mesostigmata), in particular the genus Parasitellus, use the inflorescence as a transfer station from one carrier to the next. This strategy is called phoresy and was closer explained above. Mites of the genus Parasitellus normally live in bumblebee nests. To spread from nest to nest, bumblebees are used as carriers. Since the same bumblebee will always fly to its own nest, the mite descends while its carrier visits a flower and waits there for a new carrier from another nest.
Interpretation attempt of the moth-behavior
The moth needs to fear dangerous predators, as it is helplessly exposed while feeding on a flowerhead. For this reason the moth reacts with abrupt evasive maneuvers as soon as it feels touched by another animal. It makes no difference to it whether it is touched by a mite searching for its carrier or by the beetle Olibrus bicolor that accidentally comes too close. Numerous predators use flowers to overpower unsuspecting prey. These include, for example, free hunting crab spiders (Thomisidae) or hornets (Vespidae, Hymenoptera). But that is not all, the moth is also in danger when taking flight from the inflorescence, for example from the orb web of the spider Tetragnatha cf. extensa, which can be seen at the beginning of my video documentation.
A scientific paper about the host specificity
The authors J. M. Kolster et al. (2024) investigated the host range of mites of the genus Parasitellus that are associated with wild bees (Apiformes). They used DNA data from the mites, i.a. to determine their host specificity, which they found to be restricted to bumblebees of the genus Bombus.
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Reference
J. M. Kolster et al. (2024): doi.org/10.18476/2024.…
The Tasmanian tiger, or thylacine Thylacinus cynocephalus (Dasyuromorphia, Marsupialia), is one of the best-known examples of a large vertebrate that became extinct in recent times. Film footage of specimens in zoo conditions are legendary. The last zoo specimen died in 1936. Equally legendary is the myth of surviving individuals.
Original distribution and extinction on the Australian mainland
The Tasmanian tiger (thylacine) was originally widespread on the Australian mainland, but became extinct there around 5,000 years ago for unknown reasons. A connection is suspected with the increasing population density of the Australian natives populations, who may have decimated the species through hunting. Rock paintings confirm that the thylacine was indeed hunted. However, introduced dingoes may also have contributed to the Tasmanian tiger’s decline through competition. The influence of diseases is also considered. In any case, the thylacine survived only on the island of Tasmania until the 20th century, where dingoes had never been present and human settlement occurred relatively late.
Reasons of its extinction on Tasmania
There, the thylacine likely became extinct in the 1930s. This was due to conflicts with modern human settlers and their livestock. Livestock killings that were in reality caused by feral dogs were wrongly attributed to the Tasmanian tiger. Therefore, the government placed a bounty on these animals from the 1830s onwards, leading to the extinction of the population in large parts of Tasmania. The once widespread animal had been driven into remote forest areas by targeted hunting. It wasn’t until the beginning of the 20th century that the species was considered endangered. Numerous zoos worldwide acquired wild-caught specimens, but these could not contribute to the conservation of the species, as successful breeding in captivity only occurred once. Stricter protection status was not established until the 1930s, by which time the species was already considered extinct. Persistent but not definitively documented sightings of thylacines suggest that isolated individuals may have survived until the beginning of the 21st century. However, the scientific community largely rules out the possibility of remote survival to this day.
The Tasmanian tiger originally preferred open woodland and grassland, was nocturnal, and often hunted solitarily, rarely in pairs. Large groups were uncommon. Its teeth were powerful, and its jaw joint was thought to allow for an exceptionally wide mouth opening. The bite force however was primarily only effective against smaller marsupials and possibly monotremes. The females‘ pouches were open at the rear and had four teats. During the summer months of the Southern Hemisphere, two to four cubs were born, which remained in the pouch for three months and were then cared for by their mother for up to a year. The common name „Tasmanian tiger“ derives from the striking transverse stripes along the rear half of the body. These stripes are believed to have made the animal’s outline largely invisible to other animals in its environment, thus serving as camouflage.
Convergent evolution
The Tasmanian tiger represents an excellent example of convergent evolution. In its body structure, movement, and lifestyle, it strongly resembled canid (Caniformia) carnivorans. It is thus a striking example of how similar environmental selective pressures from presumably opossum-like ancestors gave rise to an animal that is also known, not without reason, as the Tasmanian wolf.
Various research groups and research companies are working to resurrect the Tasmanian tiger, which is often seen critically, as e.g. they would lack learned natural behaviors.
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Please buy me a coffee
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Artemis II is the second of three planned lunar missions. Artemis I was a test mission in 2022, during which the American Orion spacecraft orbited the Moon unmanned from November 16 to December 11, 2022.
Planned launch time and „wet dress rehearsal“
Now NASA has prepared another test flight, this time with a crew. The system, consisting of the Space Launch System rocket and the Orion capsule, has been transported to the launch pad at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida already. The launch is scheduled for early February („no earlier than February 6, 2026“). A „wet dress rehearsal,“ essentially a ground test, will be conducted before at the end of January. During this rehearsal, all procedures except the actual launch will be practiced on the ground.
The crew and purpose of the mission
On board the space mission, which will be the first crewed mission to the Moon since Apollo 17 in 1972, will be astronauts Christina Koch, Victor Glover, Reid Wiseman, and Jeremy Hansen. The lunar flyby will serve to test systems that will be used during the landing on the subsequent Artemis III mission. Medical tests are also part of Artemis II, as are checks of all technical procedures.
Citizens can participate via their names when signing up in time
As with the Europa Clipper mission, which launched to Jupiter’s moon Europa in 2024, and where the „Message in a bottle“ project allowed interested citizens to participate by having their name engraved along with a poem, NASA is also offering the opportunity to participate by name in the Artemis II mission. 1.5 million names are expected to be included in the mission, requiring only free registration. Participants receive a „boarding pass“ with their name on it. Interested individuals are informed that their submitted names will be included on an SD card during the trip. There is also an option to subscribe via email to receive the latest NASA informations.
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My „boardingpass“ after signing up to the NASA citizen project
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My boardingpass and my artistic illustration
I am very interested in future space missions and therefore couldn’t resist registering by name to stay informed. My boarding pass is attached above. Furthermore, I created an AI-assisted illustration showing below, what it might look like to see the Moon up close from the window of the Orion capsule. When you want to sign up with your name to the mission, you’ll find the form here:
I consider the lunar mission, especially after the completion of Artemis III and preparations for establishing a permanent research station there, to be highly promising for the future of mankind. This is not only because of the mineral or water resources available on the Moon, but above all because we will gain invaluable new insights, particularly in the natural sciences, through long-term research projects there. Furthermore, these lunar missions also serve as preparation for manned missions to Mars. But first, even seemingly mundane tasks will have to be learned anew on the Moon. For example, how to construct stable roads despite the lunar gravity (see further reading).
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Ginés-Palomares, JC. et al. Laser melting manufacturing of large elements of lunar regolith simulant for paving on the Moon. Sci Rep 13, 15593 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42008-1
PLEASE SUPPORT ME THAT I CAN CONTINUE my WORK, I depend a lot on support. I work much and almost don’t earn enough to get over the months. One at least must be able to pay its food and its drinks. Please donate a cofffee for a freelance biologist, artist and science communicator. Thanks so much.
During the Carboniferous period, global forests first appeared, covering tropical zones with tree-high horsetails, clubmosses, and ferns.
These were the first global forests, at least in tropical zones. They were originally interrupted by swamp-like areas and a correspondingly moist air. Especially horsetails and clubmosses could reach altitudes like modern trees. Correspondingly massive were their trunks, which not rarely were even preserved three dimensionally in bituminous coal fossils.
More oxygen, less free CO2 and a corresponding climatic change in the subsequent Permian period
Oxygen levels rose, and CO2 was bound for the transformation of sediments into peat, lignite and then bituminous coal. The climate presumably therefore increasingly became colder due to the decreasing greenhouse gas finally leading into the Permo-Carboniferous Ice Age period.
As in the Carboniferous, where conditions could temporarily change, for example due to floods creating even more layers of biomass, which subsequently was modified into peat, also the Permian was characterized by changes, creating an ice age period, which was no continuous time of cold, but interrupted by shorter warming periods.
Animals
Animals were mainly represented by (often) large arthropods, which benefited from the high oxygen levels for their unusual growth.
Arthropods breathe via a system of cuticular tracheas, through which oxygen is mostly transported via diffusion. A larger animal needs longer and wider tracheas to reach the internal organs, where gas exchange is required. This only works, when there is an especially high oxygen concentration available.
But also other taxa of Protostomia and Deuterostomia were present. Even represented by primeval tetrapods such as prehistoric amphibians and reptiles.
Fossil preservation in bituminous coal
Please find attached bituminous coal plant fossils from Saarland (Germany) from my collection. Bituminous coal is in greater quantities for example present in South-Western Germany, where coal mining was also an important economic factor until some decades ago. This coal is nothing else than fossilized remnants of Carboniferous forests. Complex and often intact appearing plant (and more rarely animal) remnants can be easily found, when you are interested in traces of prehistoric biodiversity and have some endurance to look for the good ones. Then you can find fern fronds, huge pieces of the trunks of tree-like horsetails or clubmosses. Often the root areas are preserved, as visible in one of my presented fossils.
biologe 
