Release: 2.1.0b1 | Release Date: January 21, 2026

# SQLAlchemy 2.1 Documentation

# The Type Hierarchy

SQLAlchemy provides abstractions for most common database data types, as well as several techniques for customization of datatypes.

Database types are represented using Python classes, all of which ultimately extend from the base type class known as `TypeEngine`. There are two general categories of datatypes, each of which express themselves within the typing hierarchy in different ways. The category used by an individual datatype class can be identified based on the use of two different naming conventions, which are “CamelCase” and “UPPERCASE”.

See also

Setting up MetaData with Table objects - in the SQLAlchemy Unified Tutorial. Illustrates the most rudimental use of `TypeEngine` type objects to define `Table` metadata and introduces the concept of type objects in tutorial form.

## The “CamelCase” datatypes

The rudimental types have “CamelCase” names such as `String`, `Numeric`, `Integer`, and `DateTime`. All of the immediate subclasses of `TypeEngine` are “CamelCase” types. The “CamelCase” types are to the greatest degree possible database agnostic, meaning they can all be used on any database backend where they will behave in such a way as appropriate to that backend in order to produce the desired behavior.

An example of a straightforward “CamelCase” datatype is `String`. On most backends, using this datatype in a table specification will correspond to the `VARCHAR` database type being used on the target backend, delivering string values to and from the database, as in the example below:

    from sqlalchemy import MetaData
    from sqlalchemy import Table, Column, Integer, String

    metadata_obj = MetaData()

    user = Table(
        "user",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("user_name", String, primary_key=True),
        Column("email_address", String(60)),
    )

When using a particular `TypeEngine` class in a `Table` definition or in any SQL expression overall, if no arguments are required it may be passed as the class itself, that is, without instantiating it with `()`. If arguments are needed, such as the length argument of 60 in the `"email_address"` column above, the type may be instantiated.

Another “CamelCase” datatype that expresses more backend-specific behavior is the `Boolean` datatype. Unlike `String`, which represents a string datatype that all databases have, not every backend has a real “boolean” datatype; some make use of integers or BIT values 0 and 1, some have boolean literal constants `true` and `false` while others dont. For this datatype, `Boolean` may render `BOOLEAN` on a backend such as PostgreSQL, `BIT` on the MySQL backend and `SMALLINT` on Oracle Database. As data is sent and received from the database using this type, based on the dialect in use it may be interpreting Python numeric or boolean values.

The typical SQLAlchemy application will likely wish to use primarily “CamelCase” types in the general case, as they will generally provide the best basic behavior and be automatically portable to all backends.

Reference for the general set of “CamelCase” datatypes is below at Generic “CamelCase” Types.

## The “UPPERCASE” datatypes

In contrast to the “CamelCase” types are the “UPPERCASE” datatypes. These datatypes are always inherited from a particular “CamelCase” datatype, and always represent an exact datatype. When using an “UPPERCASE” datatype, the name of the type is always rendered exactly as given, without regard for whether or not the current backend supports it. Therefore the use of “UPPERCASE” types in a SQLAlchemy application indicates that specific datatypes are required, which then implies that the application would normally, without additional steps taken, be limited to those backends which use the type exactly as given. Examples of UPPERCASE types include `VARCHAR`, `NUMERIC`, `INTEGER`, and `TIMESTAMP`, which inherit directly from the previously mentioned “CamelCase” types `String`, `Numeric`, `Integer`, and `DateTime`, respectively.

The “UPPERCASE” datatypes that are part of `sqlalchemy.types` are common SQL types that typically expect to be available on at least two backends if not more.

Reference for the general set of “UPPERCASE” datatypes is below at SQL Standard and Multiple Vendor “UPPERCASE” Types.

## Backend-specific “UPPERCASE” datatypes

Most databases also have their own datatypes that are either fully specific to those databases, or add additional arguments that are specific to those databases. For these datatypes, specific SQLAlchemy dialects provide backend-specific “UPPERCASE” datatypes, for a SQL type that has no analogue on other backends. Examples of backend-specific uppercase datatypes include PostgreSQL’s `JSONB`, SQL Server’s `IMAGE` and MySQL’s `TINYTEXT`.

Specific backends may also include “UPPERCASE” datatypes that extend the arguments available from that same “UPPERCASE” datatype as found in the `sqlalchemy.types` module. An example is when creating a MySQL string datatype, one might want to specify MySQL-specific arguments such as `charset` or `national`, which are available from the MySQL version of `VARCHAR` as the MySQL-only parameters `VARCHAR.charset` and `VARCHAR.national`.

API documentation for backend-specific types are in the dialect-specific documentation, listed at Dialects.

## Using “UPPERCASE” and Backend-specific types for multiple backends

Reviewing the presence of “UPPERCASE” and “CamelCase” types leads to the natural use case of how to make use of “UPPERCASE” datatypes for backend-specific options, but only when that backend is in use. To tie together the database-agnostic “CamelCase” and backend-specific “UPPERCASE” systems, one makes use of the `TypeEngine.with_variant()` method in order to compose types together to work with specific behaviors on specific backends.

Such as, to use the `String` datatype, but when running on MySQL to make use of the `VARCHAR.charset` parameter of `VARCHAR` when the table is created on MySQL or MariaDB, `TypeEngine.with_variant()` may be used as below:

    from sqlalchemy import MetaData
    from sqlalchemy import Table, Column, Integer, String
    from sqlalchemy.dialects.mysql import VARCHAR

    metadata_obj = MetaData()

    user = Table(
        "user",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("user_name", String(100), primary_key=True),
        Column(
            "bio",
            String(255).with_variant(VARCHAR(255, charset="utf8"), "mysql", "mariadb"),
        ),
    )

In the above table definition, the `"bio"` column will have string-behaviors on all backends. On most backends it will render in DDL as `VARCHAR`. However on MySQL and MariaDB (indicated by database URLs that start with `mysql` or `mariadb`), it will render as `VARCHAR(255) CHARACTER SET utf8`.

See also

`TypeEngine.with_variant()` - additional usage examples and notes

## Generic “CamelCase” Types

Generic types specify a column that can read, write and store a particular type of Python data. SQLAlchemy will choose the best database column type available on the target database when issuing a `CREATE TABLE` statement. For complete control over which column type is emitted in `CREATE TABLE`, such as `VARCHAR` see SQL Standard and Multiple Vendor “UPPERCASE” Types and the other sections of this chapter.

Object Name | Description
--- | ---
BigInteger | A type for bigger `int` integers.
Boolean | A bool datatype.
Date | A type for `datetime.date()` objects.
DateTime | A type for `datetime.datetime()` objects.
Double | A type for double `FLOAT` floating point types.
Enum | Generic Enum Type.
Float | Type representing floating point types, such as `FLOAT` or `REAL`.
Integer | A type for `int` integers.
Interval | A type for `datetime.timedelta()` objects.
LargeBinary | A type for large binary byte data.
MatchType | Refers to the return type of the MATCH operator.
Numeric | Base for non-integer numeric types, such as `NUMERIC`, `FLOAT`, `DECIMAL`, and other variants.
NumericCommon | common mixin for the `Numeric` and `Float` types.
PickleType | Holds Python objects, which are serialized using pickle.
SchemaType | Add capabilities to a type which allow for schema-level DDL to be associated with a type.
SmallInteger | A type for smaller `int` integers.
String | The base for all string and character types.
Text | A variably sized string type.
Time | A type for `datetime.time()` objects.
Unicode | A variable length Unicode string type.
UnicodeText | An unbounded-length Unicode string type.
Uuid | Represent a database agnostic UUID datatype.

class sqlalchemy.types.BigInteger

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Integer`

  A type for bigger `int` integers.

  Typically generates a `BIGINT` in DDL, and otherwise acts like a normal `Integer` on the Python side.

class sqlalchemy.types.Boolean

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType`, `sqlalchemy.types.Emulated`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A bool datatype.

  `Boolean` typically uses BOOLEAN or SMALLINT on the DDL side, and on the Python side deals in `True` or `False`.

  The `Boolean` datatype currently has two levels of assertion that the values persisted are simple true/false values. For all backends, only the Python values `None`, `True`, `False`, `1` or `0` are accepted as parameter values. For those backends that don’t support a “native boolean” datatype, an option exists to also create a CHECK constraint on the target column

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Boolean.
  bind_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing bind values.
  literal_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.
  operator_classes | Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.
  result_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean.`__init__(create_constraint: bool = False, name: str | None = None, _create_events: bool = True, _adapted_from: SchemaType | None = None)

    Construct a Boolean.

    Parameters:

      - create_constraint –

        defaults to False. If the boolean is generated as an int/smallint, also create a CHECK constraint on the table that ensures 1 or 0 as a value.

        Note

        it is strongly recommended that the CHECK constraint have an explicit name in order to support schema-management concerns. This can be established either by setting the `Boolean.name` parameter or by setting up an appropriate naming convention; see Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions for background.

        Changed in version 1.4: - this flag now defaults to False, meaning no CHECK constraint is generated for a non-native enumerated type.

      - name – if a CHECK constraint is generated, specify the name of the constraint.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean.`bind_processor(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.bind_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.bind_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_bind_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean.`literal_processor(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    Returns a callable which will receive a literal Python value as the sole positional argument and will return a string representation to be rendered in a SQL statement.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.literal_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.literal_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_literal_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean.`operator_classes = 14

    Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

    Added in version 2.1.

    See also

    `OperatorClass`

  property python_type

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    By default the generic `object` type is returned.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

    Changed in version 2.1: - The default implementation now returns `object` instead of raising `NotImplementedError`.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean.`result_processor(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.result_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.result_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_result_value()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      - dialect – Dialect instance in use.

      - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class sqlalchemy.types.Date

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types._RenderISO8601NoT`, `sqlalchemy.types.HasExpressionLookup`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A type for `datetime.date()` objects.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  get_dbapi_type() | Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.
  literal_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.
  operator_classes | Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Date.`get_dbapi_type(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Date.`literal_processor(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    Returns a callable which will receive a literal Python value as the sole positional argument and will return a string representation to be rendered in a SQL statement.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.literal_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.literal_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_literal_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.Date.`operator_classes = 1034

    Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

    Added in version 2.1.

    See also

    `OperatorClass`

  property python_type

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    By default the generic `object` type is returned.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

    Changed in version 2.1: - The default implementation now returns `object` instead of raising `NotImplementedError`.

class sqlalchemy.types.DateTime

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types._RenderISO8601NoT`, `sqlalchemy.types.HasExpressionLookup`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A type for `datetime.datetime()` objects.

  Date and time types return objects from the Python `datetime` module. Most DBAPIs have built in support for the datetime module, with the noted exception of SQLite. In the case of SQLite, date and time types are stored as strings which are then converted back to datetime objects when rows are returned.

  For the time representation within the datetime type, some backends include additional options, such as timezone support and fractional seconds support. For fractional seconds, use the dialect-specific datatype, such as `TIME`. For timezone support, use at least the `TIMESTAMP` datatype, if not the dialect-specific datatype object.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a new `DateTime`.
  get_dbapi_type() | Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.
  literal_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.
  operator_classes | Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.DateTime.`__init__(timezone: bool = False)

    Construct a new `DateTime`.

    Parameters:

      timezone – boolean. Indicates that the datetime type should enable timezone support, if available on the base date/time-holding type only. It is recommended to make use of the `TIMESTAMP` datatype directly when using this flag, as some databases include separate generic date/time-holding types distinct from the timezone-capable TIMESTAMP datatype, such as Oracle Database.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.DateTime.`get_dbapi_type(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.DateTime.`literal_processor(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    Returns a callable which will receive a literal Python value as the sole positional argument and will return a string representation to be rendered in a SQL statement.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.literal_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.literal_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_literal_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.DateTime.`operator_classes = 1034

    Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

    Added in version 2.1.

    See also

    `OperatorClass`

  property python_type

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    By default the generic `object` type is returned.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

    Changed in version 2.1: - The default implementation now returns `object` instead of raising `NotImplementedError`.

class sqlalchemy.types.Enum

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.String`, `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType`, `sqlalchemy.types.Emulated`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  Generic Enum Type.

  The `Enum` type provides a set of possible string values which the column is constrained towards.

  The `Enum` type will make use of the backend’s native “ENUM” type if one is available; otherwise, it uses a VARCHAR datatype. An option also exists to automatically produce a CHECK constraint when the VARCHAR (so called “non-native”) variant is produced; see the `Enum.create_constraint` flag.

  The `Enum` type also provides in-Python validation of string values during both read and write operations. When reading a value from the database in a result set, the string value is always checked against the list of possible values and a `LookupError` is raised if no match is found. When passing a value to the database as a plain string within a SQL statement, if the `Enum.validate_strings` parameter is set to True, a `LookupError` is raised for any string value that’s not located in the given list of possible values; note that this impacts usage of LIKE expressions with enumerated values (an unusual use case).

  The source of enumerated values may be a list of string values, or alternatively a PEP-435-compliant enumerated class. For the purposes of the `Enum` datatype, this class need only provide a `__members__` method.

  When using an enumerated class, the enumerated objects are used both for input and output, rather than strings as is the case with a plain-string enumerated type:

      import enum
      from sqlalchemy import Enum

      class MyEnum(enum.Enum):
          one = 1
          two = 2
          three = 3

      t = Table("data", MetaData(), Column("value", Enum(MyEnum)))

      connection.execute(t.insert(), {"value": MyEnum.two})
      assert connection.scalar(t.select()) is MyEnum.two

  Above, the string names of each element, e.g. “one”, “two”, “three”, are persisted to the database; the values of the Python Enum, here indicated as integers, are not used; the value of each enum can therefore be any kind of Python object whether or not it is persistable.

  In order to persist the values and not the names, the `Enum.values_callable` parameter may be used. The value of this parameter is a user-supplied callable, which is intended to be used with a PEP-435-compliant enumerated class and returns a list of string values to be persisted. For a simple enumeration that uses string values, a callable such as `lambda x: [e.value for e in x]` is sufficient.

  See also

  Using Python Enum or pep-586 Literal types in the type map - background on using the `Enum` datatype with the ORM’s ORM Annotated Declarative feature.

  `ENUM` - PostgreSQL-specific type, which has additional functionality.

  `ENUM` - MySQL-specific type

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct an enum.
  create() | Issue CREATE DDL for this type, if applicable.
  drop() | Issue DROP DDL for this type, if applicable.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Enum.`__init__(*enums: str | Type[Enum], **kw: Any) → None

    Construct an enum.

    Keyword arguments which don’t apply to a specific backend are ignored by that backend.

    Parameters:

      - *enums – either exactly one PEP-435 compliant enumerated type or one or more string labels.

      - create_constraint –

        defaults to False. When creating a non-native enumerated type, also build a CHECK constraint on the database against the valid values.

        Note

        it is strongly recommended that the CHECK constraint have an explicit name in order to support schema-management concerns. This can be established either by setting the `Enum.name` parameter or by setting up an appropriate naming convention; see Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions for background.

        Changed in version 1.4: - this flag now defaults to False, meaning no CHECK constraint is generated for a non-native enumerated type.

      - metadata –

        Associate this type directly with a `MetaData` object. For types that exist on the target database as an independent schema construct (PostgreSQL), this type will be created and dropped within `MetaData.create_all()` and `MetaData.drop_all()` operations. If the type is not associated with any `MetaData` object, it will automatically associate itself with the `MetaData` object from the first `Table` it’s used in. The type will be created when any table that uses it is created, after a check is performed for its existence. The type is only dropped when `MetaData.drop_all()` is called for the associated metadata.

        Changed in version 2.1: named types like `Enum`, `ENUM` and `DOMAIN` now inherit the schema of the associated `MetaData` automatically, even when only first associated with a `Table`.

        The value of the `MetaData.schema` parameter of the `MetaData` object, if set, will be used as the default value of the `Enum.schema` on this object if an explicit value is not otherwise supplied.

        Changed in version 2.1: `Enum` will associate itself with the metadata of the first `Table` it is used in, if a metadata object is not provided.

      - name – The name of this type. This is required for PostgreSQL and any future supported database which requires an explicitly named type, or an explicitly named constraint in order to generate the type and/or a table that uses it. If a PEP-435 enumerated class was used, its name (converted to lower case) is used by default.

      - create_type –

        Defaults to True. This parameter only applies to backends such as PostgreSQL which use explicitly named types that are created and dropped separately from the table(s) they are used by. Indicates that `CREATE TYPE` should be emitted, after optionally checking for the presence of the type, when the parent table is being created. This parameter is equivalent to the parameter of the same name on the PostgreSQL-specific `ENUM` datatype.

        > Added in version 2.1: - The dialect agnostic `Enum` class now includes the same `Enum.create_type` parameter that was already available on the PostgreSQL native `ENUM` implementation.

      - native_enum – Use the database’s native ENUM type when available. Defaults to True. When False, uses VARCHAR + check constraint for all backends. When False, the VARCHAR length can be controlled with `Enum.length`; currently “length” is ignored if native_enum=True.

      - length –

        Allows specifying a custom length for the VARCHAR when a non-native enumeration datatype is used. By default it uses the length of the longest value.

        Changed in version 2.0.0: The `Enum.length` parameter is used unconditionally for `VARCHAR` rendering regardless of the `Enum.native_enum` parameter, for those backends where `VARCHAR` is used for enumerated datatypes.

      - schema –

        Schema name of this type. For types that exist on the target database as an independent schema construct (PostgreSQL), this parameter specifies the named schema in which the type is present.

        If not present, the schema name will be taken from the `MetaData` collection if it includes the `MetaData.schema` parameter, unless the deprecated `Enum.inherit_schema` parameter is set to `True`.

      - quote – Set explicit quoting preferences for the type’s name.

      - inherit_schema –

        When `True`, the “schema” from the owning `Table` will be copied to the “schema” attribute of this `Enum`.

        Deprecated since version 2.1: Setting the `Enum.inherit_schema` parameter is deprecated. Provide the schema directly if the default behavior of using the `MetaData` schema is not desired.

      - validate_strings – when True, string values that are being passed to the database in a SQL statement will be checked for validity against the list of enumerated values. Unrecognized values will result in a `LookupError` being raised.

      - values_callable – A callable which will be passed the PEP-435 compliant enumerated type, which should then return a list of string values to be persisted. This allows for alternate usages such as using the string value of an enum to be persisted to the database instead of its name. The callable must return the values to be persisted in the same order as iterating through the Enum’s `__member__` attribute. For example `lambda x: [i.value for i in x]`.

      - sort_key_function – a Python callable which may be used as the “key” argument in the Python `sorted()` built-in. The SQLAlchemy ORM requires that primary key columns which are mapped must be sortable in some way. When using an unsortable enumeration object such as a Python 3 `Enum` object, this parameter may be used to set a default sort key function for the objects. By default, the database value of the enumeration is used as the sorting function.

      - omit_aliases –

        A boolean that when true will remove aliases from pep 435 enums. defaults to `True`.

        Changed in version 2.0: This parameter now defaults to True.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Enum.`create(bind: _CreateDropBind, checkfirst: bool = False) → None

    inherited from the `SchemaType.create()` method of `SchemaType`

    Issue CREATE DDL for this type, if applicable.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Enum.`drop(bind: _CreateDropBind, checkfirst: bool = False) → None

    inherited from the `SchemaType.drop()` method of `SchemaType`

    Issue DROP DDL for this type, if applicable.

class sqlalchemy.types.Double

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Float`

  A type for double `FLOAT` floating point types.

  Typically generates a `DOUBLE` or `DOUBLE_PRECISION` in DDL, and otherwise acts like a normal `Float` on the Python side.

  Added in version 2.0.

class sqlalchemy.types.Float

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.NumericCommon`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  Type representing floating point types, such as `FLOAT` or `REAL`.

  This type returns Python `float` objects by default, unless the `Float.asdecimal` flag is set to `True`, in which case they are coerced to `decimal.Decimal` objects.

  When a `Float.precision` is not provided in a `Float` type some backend may compile this type as an 8 bytes / 64 bit float datatype. To use a 4 bytes / 32 bit float datatype a precision <= 24 can usually be provided or the `REAL` type can be used. This is known to be the case in the PostgreSQL and MSSQL dialects that render the type as `FLOAT` that’s in both an alias of `DOUBLE PRECISION`. Other third party dialects may have similar behavior.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Float.
  result_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Float.`__init__(precision: int | None = None, asdecimal: bool = False, decimal_return_scale: int | None = None)

    Construct a Float.

    Parameters:

      - precision –

        the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`. Backends should attempt to ensure this precision indicates a number of digits for the generic `Float` datatype.

        Note

        For the Oracle Database backend, the `Float.precision` parameter is not accepted when rendering DDL, as Oracle Database does not support float precision specified as a number of decimal places. Instead, use the Oracle Database-specific `FLOAT` datatype and specify the `FLOAT.binary_precision` parameter. This is new in version 2.0 of SQLAlchemy.

        To create a database agnostic `Float` that separately specifies binary precision for Oracle Database, use `TypeEngine.with_variant()` as follows:

            from sqlalchemy import Column
            from sqlalchemy import Float
            from sqlalchemy.dialects import oracle

            Column(
                "float_data",
                Float(5).with_variant(oracle.FLOAT(binary_precision=16), "oracle"),
            )

      - asdecimal – the same flag as that of `Numeric`, but defaults to `False`. Note that setting this flag to `True` results in floating point conversion.

      - decimal_return_scale – Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specifying this value will override that length. Note that the MySQL float types, which do include “scale”, will use “scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Float.`result_processor(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.result_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.result_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_result_value()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      - dialect – Dialect instance in use.

      - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class sqlalchemy.types.Integer

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.HasExpressionLookup`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A type for `int` integers.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  get_dbapi_type() | Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.
  literal_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.
  operator_classes | Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Integer.`get_dbapi_type(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Integer.`literal_processor(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    Returns a callable which will receive a literal Python value as the sole positional argument and will return a string representation to be rendered in a SQL statement.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.literal_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.literal_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_literal_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.Integer.`operator_classes = 778

    Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

    Added in version 2.1.

    See also

    `OperatorClass`

  property python_type

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    By default the generic `object` type is returned.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

    Changed in version 2.1: - The default implementation now returns `object` instead of raising `NotImplementedError`.

class sqlalchemy.types.Interval

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Emulated`, `sqlalchemy.types._AbstractInterval`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeDecorator`

  A type for `datetime.timedelta()` objects.

  The Interval type deals with `datetime.timedelta` objects. In PostgreSQL and Oracle Database, the native `INTERVAL` type is used; for others, the value is stored as a date which is relative to the “epoch” (Jan. 1, 1970).

  Note that the `Interval` type does not currently provide date arithmetic operations on platforms which do not support interval types natively. Such operations usually require transformation of both sides of the expression (such as, conversion of both sides into integer epoch values first) which currently is a manual procedure (such as via `expression.func`).

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct an Interval object.
  adapt_to_emulated() | Given an impl class, adapt this type to the impl assuming “emulated”.
  bind_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing bind values.
  cache_ok | Indicate if statements using this `ExternalType` are “safe to cache”.
  coerce_compared_value() | Suggest a type for a ‘coerced’ Python value in an expression.
  comparator_factory | alias of `Comparator`
  impl | alias of `DateTime`
  result_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

  class Comparator

    inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`, `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Interval.`__init__(native: bool = True, second_precision: int | None = None, day_precision: int | None = None)

    Construct an Interval object.

    Parameters:

      - native – when True, use the actual INTERVAL type provided by the database, if supported (currently PostgreSQL, Oracle Database). Otherwise, represent the interval data as an epoch value regardless.

      - second_precision – For native interval types which support a “fractional seconds precision” parameter, i.e. Oracle Database and PostgreSQL

      - day_precision – for native interval types which support a “day precision” parameter, i.e. Oracle Database.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Interval.`adapt_to_emulated(impltype, **kw)

    Given an impl class, adapt this type to the impl assuming “emulated”.

    The impl should also be an “emulated” version of this type, most likely the same class as this type itself.

    e.g.: sqltypes.Enum adapts to the Enum class.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Interval.`bind_processor(dialect: Dialect) → _BindProcessorType[dt.timedelta]

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.bind_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.bind_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_bind_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.Interval.`cache_ok = True

    Indicate if statements using this `ExternalType` are “safe to cache”.

    The default value `None` will emit a warning and then not allow caching of a statement which includes this type. Set to `False` to disable statements using this type from being cached at all without a warning. When set to `True`, the object’s class and selected elements from its state will be used as part of the cache key. For example, using a `TypeDecorator`:

        class MyType(TypeDecorator):
            impl = String

            cache_ok = True

            def __init__(self, choices):
                self.choices = tuple(choices)
                self.internal_only = True

    The cache key for the above type would be equivalent to:

        >>> MyType(["a", "b", "c"])._static_cache_key
        (<class '__main__.MyType'>, ('choices', ('a', 'b', 'c')))

    The caching scheme will extract attributes from the type that correspond to the names of parameters in the `__init__()` method. Above, the “choices” attribute becomes part of the cache key but “internal_only” does not, because there is no parameter named “internal_only”.

    The requirements for cacheable elements is that they are hashable and also that they indicate the same SQL rendered for expressions using this type every time for a given cache value.

    To accommodate for datatypes that refer to unhashable structures such as dictionaries, sets and lists, these objects can be made “cacheable” by assigning hashable structures to the attributes whose names correspond with the names of the arguments. For example, a datatype which accepts a dictionary of lookup values may publish this as a sorted series of tuples. Given a previously un-cacheable type as:

        class LookupType(UserDefinedType):
            """a custom type that accepts a dictionary as a parameter.

            this is the non-cacheable version, as "self.lookup" is not
            hashable.

            """

            def __init__(self, lookup):
                self.lookup = lookup

            def get_col_spec(self, **kw):
                return "VARCHAR(255)"

            def bind_processor(self, dialect): ...  # works with "self.lookup" ...

    Where “lookup” is a dictionary. The type will not be able to generate a cache key:

        >>> type_ = LookupType({"a": 10, "b": 20})
        >>> type_._static_cache_key
        <stdin>:1: SAWarning: UserDefinedType LookupType({'a': 10, 'b': 20}) will not
        produce a cache key because the ``cache_ok`` flag is not set to True.
        Set this flag to True if this type object's state is safe to use
        in a cache key, or False to disable this warning.
        symbol('no_cache')

    If we did set up such a cache key, it wouldn’t be usable. We would get a tuple structure that contains a dictionary inside of it, which cannot itself be used as a key in a “cache dictionary” such as SQLAlchemy’s statement cache, since Python dictionaries aren’t hashable:

        >>> # set cache_ok = True
        >>> type_.cache_ok = True

        >>> # this is the cache key it would generate
        >>> key = type_._static_cache_key
        >>> key
        (<class '__main__.LookupType'>, ('lookup', {'a': 10, 'b': 20}))

        >>> # however this key is not hashable, will fail when used with
        >>> # SQLAlchemy statement cache
        >>> some_cache = {key: "some sql value"}
        Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1,
        in <module> TypeError: unhashable type: 'dict'

    The type may be made cacheable by assigning a sorted tuple of tuples to the “.lookup” attribute:

        class LookupType(UserDefinedType):
            """a custom type that accepts a dictionary as a parameter.

            The dictionary is stored both as itself in a private variable,
            and published in a public variable as a sorted tuple of tuples,
            which is hashable and will also return the same value for any
            two equivalent dictionaries.  Note it assumes the keys and
            values of the dictionary are themselves hashable.

            """

            cache_ok = True

            def __init__(self, lookup):
                self._lookup = lookup

                # assume keys/values of "lookup" are hashable; otherwise
                # they would also need to be converted in some way here
                self.lookup = tuple((key, lookup[key]) for key in sorted(lookup))

            def get_col_spec(self, **kw):
                return "VARCHAR(255)"

            def bind_processor(self, dialect): ...  # works with "self._lookup" ...

    Where above, the cache key for `LookupType({"a": 10, "b": 20})` will be:

        >>> LookupType({"a": 10, "b": 20})._static_cache_key
        (<class '__main__.LookupType'>, ('lookup', (('a', 10), ('b', 20))))

    Added in version 1.4.14: - added the `cache_ok` flag to allow some configurability of caching for `TypeDecorator` classes.

    Added in version 1.4.28: - added the `ExternalType` mixin which generalizes the `cache_ok` flag to both the `TypeDecorator` and `UserDefinedType` classes.

    See also

    SQL Compilation Caching

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Interval.`coerce_compared_value(op, value)

    Suggest a type for a ‘coerced’ Python value in an expression.

    Given an operator and value, gives the type a chance to return a type which the value should be coerced into.

    The default behavior here is conservative; if the right-hand side is already coerced into a SQL type based on its Python type, it is usually left alone.

    End-user functionality extension here should generally be via `TypeDecorator`, which provides more liberal behavior in that it defaults to coercing the other side of the expression into this type, thus applying special Python conversions above and beyond those needed by the DBAPI to both ides. It also provides the public method `TypeDecorator.coerce_compared_value()` which is intended for end-user customization of this behavior.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.Interval.`comparator_factory

    alias of `Comparator`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.Interval.`impl

    alias of `DateTime`

  property python_type

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    By default the generic `object` type is returned.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

    Changed in version 2.1: - The default implementation now returns `object` instead of raising `NotImplementedError`.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Interval.`result_processor(dialect: Dialect, coltype: Any) → _ResultProcessorType[dt.timedelta]

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.result_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.result_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_result_value()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      - dialect – Dialect instance in use.

      - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class sqlalchemy.types.LargeBinary

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types._Binary`

  A type for large binary byte data.

  The `LargeBinary` type corresponds to a large and/or unlengthed binary type for the target platform, such as BLOB on MySQL and BYTEA for PostgreSQL. It also handles the necessary conversions for the DBAPI.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a LargeBinary type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.LargeBinary.`__init__(length: int | None = None)

    Construct a LargeBinary type.

    Parameters:

      length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL statements, for those binary types that accept a length, such as the MySQL BLOB type.

class sqlalchemy.types.MatchType

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean`

  Refers to the return type of the MATCH operator.

  As the `ColumnOperators.match()` is probably the most open-ended operator in generic SQLAlchemy Core, we can’t assume the return type at SQL evaluation time, as MySQL returns a floating point, not a boolean, and other backends might do something different. So this type acts as a placeholder, currently subclassing `Boolean`. The type allows dialects to inject result-processing functionality if needed, and on MySQL will return floating-point values.

class sqlalchemy.types.Numeric

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.NumericCommon`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  Base for non-integer numeric types, such as `NUMERIC`, `FLOAT`, `DECIMAL`, and other variants.

  The `Numeric` datatype when used directly will render DDL corresponding to precision numerics if available, such as `NUMERIC(precision, scale)`. The `Float` subclass will attempt to render a floating-point datatype such as `FLOAT(precision)`.

  `Numeric` returns Python `decimal.Decimal` objects by default, based on the default value of `True` for the `Numeric.asdecimal` parameter. If this parameter is set to False, returned values are coerced to Python `float` objects.

  The `Float` subtype, being more specific to floating point, defaults the `Float.asdecimal` flag to False so that the default Python datatype is `float`.

  Note

  When using a `Numeric` datatype against a database type that returns Python floating point values to the driver, the accuracy of the decimal conversion indicated by `Numeric.asdecimal` may be limited. The behavior of specific numeric/floating point datatypes is a product of the SQL datatype in use, the Python DBAPI in use, as well as strategies that may be present within the SQLAlchemy dialect in use. Users requiring specific precision/ scale are encouraged to experiment with the available datatypes in order to determine the best results.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Numeric.
  result_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Numeric.`__init__(precision: int | None = None, scale: int | None = None, decimal_return_scale: int | None = None, asdecimal: bool = True)

    Construct a Numeric.

    Parameters:

      - precision – the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`.

      - scale – the numeric scale for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`.

      - asdecimal – default True. Return whether or not values should be sent as Python Decimal objects, or as floats. Different DBAPIs send one or the other based on datatypes - the Numeric type will ensure that return values are one or the other across DBAPIs consistently.

      - decimal_return_scale – Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specifying this value will override that length. Types which do include an explicit “.scale” value, such as the base `Numeric` as well as the MySQL float types, will use the value of “.scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

    When using the `Numeric` type, care should be taken to ensure that the asdecimal setting is appropriate for the DBAPI in use - when Numeric applies a conversion from Decimal->float or float-> Decimal, this conversion incurs an additional performance overhead for all result columns received.

    DBAPIs that return Decimal natively (e.g. psycopg2) will have better accuracy and higher performance with a setting of `True`, as the native translation to Decimal reduces the amount of floating- point issues at play, and the Numeric type itself doesn’t need to apply any further conversions. However, another DBAPI which returns floats natively will incur an additional conversion overhead, and is still subject to floating point data loss - in which case `asdecimal=False` will at least remove the extra conversion overhead.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Numeric.`result_processor(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.result_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.result_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_result_value()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      - dialect – Dialect instance in use.

      - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class sqlalchemy.types.NumericCommon

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.HasExpressionLookup`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngineMixin`, `typing.Generic`

  common mixin for the `Numeric` and `Float` types.

  Added in version 2.1.

class sqlalchemy.types.PickleType

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.TypeDecorator`

  Holds Python objects, which are serialized using pickle.

  PickleType builds upon the Binary type to apply Python’s `pickle.dumps()` to incoming objects, and `pickle.loads()` on the way out, allowing any pickleable Python object to be stored as a serialized binary field.

  To allow ORM change events to propagate for elements associated with `PickleType`, see Mutation Tracking.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a PickleType.
  bind_processor() | Provide a bound value processing function for the given `Dialect`.
  cache_ok | Indicate if statements using this `ExternalType` are “safe to cache”.
  compare_values() | Given two values, compare them for equality.
  impl | alias of `LargeBinary`
  result_processor() | Provide a result value processing function for the given `Dialect`.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.PickleType.`__init__(protocol: int = 5, pickler: Any = None, comparator: Callable[[Any, Any], bool] | None = None, impl: _TypeEngineArgument[Any] | None = None)

    Construct a PickleType.

    Parameters:

      - protocol – defaults to `pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL`.

      - pickler – defaults to pickle. May be any object with pickle-compatible `dumps` and `loads` methods.

      - comparator – a 2-arg callable predicate used to compare values of this type. If left as `None`, the Python “equals” operator is used to compare values.

      - impl –

        A binary-storing `TypeEngine` class or instance to use in place of the default `LargeBinary`. For example the :class: _mysql.LONGBLOB class may be more effective when using MySQL.

        Added in version 1.4.20.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.PickleType.`bind_processor(dialect)

    Provide a bound value processing function for the given `Dialect`.

    This is the method that fulfills the `TypeEngine` contract for bound value conversion which normally occurs via the `TypeEngine.bind_processor()` method.

    Note

    User-defined subclasses of `TypeDecorator` should not implement this method, and should instead implement `TypeDecorator.process_bind_param()` so that the “inner” processing provided by the implementing type is maintained.

    Parameters:

      dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.PickleType.`cache_ok = True

    Indicate if statements using this `ExternalType` are “safe to cache”.

    The default value `None` will emit a warning and then not allow caching of a statement which includes this type. Set to `False` to disable statements using this type from being cached at all without a warning. When set to `True`, the object’s class and selected elements from its state will be used as part of the cache key. For example, using a `TypeDecorator`:

        class MyType(TypeDecorator):
            impl = String

            cache_ok = True

            def __init__(self, choices):
                self.choices = tuple(choices)
                self.internal_only = True

    The cache key for the above type would be equivalent to:

        >>> MyType(["a", "b", "c"])._static_cache_key
        (<class '__main__.MyType'>, ('choices', ('a', 'b', 'c')))

    The caching scheme will extract attributes from the type that correspond to the names of parameters in the `__init__()` method. Above, the “choices” attribute becomes part of the cache key but “internal_only” does not, because there is no parameter named “internal_only”.

    The requirements for cacheable elements is that they are hashable and also that they indicate the same SQL rendered for expressions using this type every time for a given cache value.

    To accommodate for datatypes that refer to unhashable structures such as dictionaries, sets and lists, these objects can be made “cacheable” by assigning hashable structures to the attributes whose names correspond with the names of the arguments. For example, a datatype which accepts a dictionary of lookup values may publish this as a sorted series of tuples. Given a previously un-cacheable type as:

        class LookupType(UserDefinedType):
            """a custom type that accepts a dictionary as a parameter.

            this is the non-cacheable version, as "self.lookup" is not
            hashable.

            """

            def __init__(self, lookup):
                self.lookup = lookup

            def get_col_spec(self, **kw):
                return "VARCHAR(255)"

            def bind_processor(self, dialect): ...  # works with "self.lookup" ...

    Where “lookup” is a dictionary. The type will not be able to generate a cache key:

        >>> type_ = LookupType({"a": 10, "b": 20})
        >>> type_._static_cache_key
        <stdin>:1: SAWarning: UserDefinedType LookupType({'a': 10, 'b': 20}) will not
        produce a cache key because the ``cache_ok`` flag is not set to True.
        Set this flag to True if this type object's state is safe to use
        in a cache key, or False to disable this warning.
        symbol('no_cache')

    If we did set up such a cache key, it wouldn’t be usable. We would get a tuple structure that contains a dictionary inside of it, which cannot itself be used as a key in a “cache dictionary” such as SQLAlchemy’s statement cache, since Python dictionaries aren’t hashable:

        >>> # set cache_ok = True
        >>> type_.cache_ok = True

        >>> # this is the cache key it would generate
        >>> key = type_._static_cache_key
        >>> key
        (<class '__main__.LookupType'>, ('lookup', {'a': 10, 'b': 20}))

        >>> # however this key is not hashable, will fail when used with
        >>> # SQLAlchemy statement cache
        >>> some_cache = {key: "some sql value"}
        Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1,
        in <module> TypeError: unhashable type: 'dict'

    The type may be made cacheable by assigning a sorted tuple of tuples to the “.lookup” attribute:

        class LookupType(UserDefinedType):
            """a custom type that accepts a dictionary as a parameter.

            The dictionary is stored both as itself in a private variable,
            and published in a public variable as a sorted tuple of tuples,
            which is hashable and will also return the same value for any
            two equivalent dictionaries.  Note it assumes the keys and
            values of the dictionary are themselves hashable.

            """

            cache_ok = True

            def __init__(self, lookup):
                self._lookup = lookup

                # assume keys/values of "lookup" are hashable; otherwise
                # they would also need to be converted in some way here
                self.lookup = tuple((key, lookup[key]) for key in sorted(lookup))

            def get_col_spec(self, **kw):
                return "VARCHAR(255)"

            def bind_processor(self, dialect): ...  # works with "self._lookup" ...

    Where above, the cache key for `LookupType({"a": 10, "b": 20})` will be:

        >>> LookupType({"a": 10, "b": 20})._static_cache_key
        (<class '__main__.LookupType'>, ('lookup', (('a', 10), ('b', 20))))

    Added in version 1.4.14: - added the `cache_ok` flag to allow some configurability of caching for `TypeDecorator` classes.

    Added in version 1.4.28: - added the `ExternalType` mixin which generalizes the `cache_ok` flag to both the `TypeDecorator` and `UserDefinedType` classes.

    See also

    SQL Compilation Caching

  method `sqlalchemy.types.PickleType.`compare_values(x, y)

    Given two values, compare them for equality.

    By default this calls upon `TypeEngine.compare_values()` of the underlying “impl”, which in turn usually uses the Python equals operator `==`.

    This function is used by the ORM to compare an original-loaded value with an intercepted “changed” value, to determine if a net change has occurred.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.PickleType.`impl

    alias of `LargeBinary`

  method `sqlalchemy.types.PickleType.`result_processor(dialect, coltype)

    Provide a result value processing function for the given `Dialect`.

    This is the method that fulfills the `TypeEngine` contract for bound value conversion which normally occurs via the `TypeEngine.result_processor()` method.

    Note

    User-defined subclasses of `TypeDecorator` should not implement this method, and should instead implement `TypeDecorator.process_result_value()` so that the “inner” processing provided by the implementing type is maintained.

    Parameters:

      - dialect – Dialect instance in use.

      - coltype – A SQLAlchemy data type

class sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.SchemaEventTarget`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngineMixin`

  Add capabilities to a type which allow for schema-level DDL to be associated with a type.

  Supports types that must be explicitly created/dropped (i.e. PG ENUM type) as well as types that are complimented by table or schema level constraints, triggers, and other rules.

  `SchemaType` classes can also be targets for the `DDLEvents.before_parent_attach()` and `DDLEvents.after_parent_attach()` events, where the events fire off surrounding the association of the type object with a parent `Column`.

  See also

  `Enum`

  `Boolean`

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  adapt() |
  copy() |
  create() | Issue CREATE DDL for this type, if applicable.
  drop() | Issue DROP DDL for this type, if applicable.
  metadata |
  name |

  method `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType.`adapt(cls: Type[TypeEngine | TypeEngineMixin], **kw: Any) → TypeEngine
  method `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType.`copy(**kw)
  method `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType.`create(bind: _CreateDropBind, checkfirst: bool = False) → None

    Issue CREATE DDL for this type, if applicable.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType.`drop(bind: _CreateDropBind, checkfirst: bool = False) → None

    Issue DROP DDL for this type, if applicable.

  property inherit_schema: bool

    Deprecated property `inherit_schema`.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType.`metadata: MetaData | None
  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType.`name: str | None

class sqlalchemy.types.SmallInteger

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Integer`

  A type for smaller `int` integers.

  Typically generates a `SMALLINT` in DDL, and otherwise acts like a normal `Integer` on the Python side.

class sqlalchemy.types.String

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Concatenable`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  The base for all string and character types.

  In SQL, corresponds to VARCHAR.

  The length field is usually required when the String type is used within a CREATE TABLE statement, as VARCHAR requires a length on most databases.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Create a string-holding type.
  bind_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing bind values.
  get_dbapi_type() | Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.
  literal_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.
  operator_classes | Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.
  result_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.String.`__init__(length: int | None = None, collation: str | None = None)

    Create a string-holding type.

    Parameters:

      - length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL and CAST expressions. May be safely omitted if no `CREATE TABLE` will be issued. Certain databases may require a `length` for use in DDL, and will raise an exception when the `CREATE TABLE` DDL is issued if a `VARCHAR` with no length is included. Whether the value is interpreted as bytes or characters is database specific.

      - collation –

        Optional, a column-level collation for use in DDL and CAST expressions. Renders using the COLLATE keyword supported by SQLite, MySQL, and PostgreSQL. E.g.:

            >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, select, String
            >>> print(select(cast("some string", String(collation="utf8"))))
            SELECT CAST(:param_1 AS VARCHAR COLLATE utf8) AS anon_1

        Note

        In most cases, the `Unicode` or `UnicodeText` datatypes should be used for a `Column` that expects to store non-ascii data. These datatypes will ensure that the correct types are used on the database.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.String.`bind_processor(dialect: Dialect) → _BindProcessorType[str] | None

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.bind_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.bind_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_bind_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.String.`get_dbapi_type(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.String.`literal_processor(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    Returns a callable which will receive a literal Python value as the sole positional argument and will return a string representation to be rendered in a SQL statement.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.literal_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.literal_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_literal_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.String.`operator_classes = 250

    Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

    Added in version 2.1.

    See also

    `OperatorClass`

  property python_type

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    By default the generic `object` type is returned.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

    Changed in version 2.1: - The default implementation now returns `object` instead of raising `NotImplementedError`.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.String.`result_processor(dialect: Dialect, coltype: object) → _ResultProcessorType[str] | None

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.result_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.result_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_result_value()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      - dialect – Dialect instance in use.

      - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class sqlalchemy.types.Text

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.String`

  A variably sized string type.

  In SQL, usually corresponds to CLOB or TEXT. In general, TEXT objects do not have a length; while some databases will accept a length argument here, it will be rejected by others.

class sqlalchemy.types.Time

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types._RenderISO8601NoT`, `sqlalchemy.types.HasExpressionLookup`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A type for `datetime.time()` objects.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  get_dbapi_type() | Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.
  literal_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.
  operator_classes | Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Time.`get_dbapi_type(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Time.`literal_processor(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    Returns a callable which will receive a literal Python value as the sole positional argument and will return a string representation to be rendered in a SQL statement.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.literal_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.literal_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_literal_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.Time.`operator_classes = 1034

    Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

    Added in version 2.1.

    See also

    `OperatorClass`

  property python_type

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    By default the generic `object` type is returned.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

    Changed in version 2.1: - The default implementation now returns `object` instead of raising `NotImplementedError`.

class sqlalchemy.types.Unicode

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.String`

  A variable length Unicode string type.

  The `Unicode` type is a `String` subclass that assumes input and output strings that may contain non-ASCII characters, and for some backends implies an underlying column type that is explicitly supporting of non-ASCII data, such as `NVARCHAR` on Oracle Database and SQL Server. This will impact the output of `CREATE TABLE` statements and `CAST` functions at the dialect level.

  The character encoding used by the `Unicode` type that is used to transmit and receive data to the database is usually determined by the DBAPI itself. All modern DBAPIs accommodate non-ASCII strings but may have different methods of managing database encodings; if necessary, this encoding should be configured as detailed in the notes for the target DBAPI in the Dialects section.

  In modern SQLAlchemy, use of the `Unicode` datatype does not imply any encoding/decoding behavior within SQLAlchemy itself. In Python 3, all string objects are inherently Unicode capable, and SQLAlchemy does not produce bytestring objects nor does it accommodate a DBAPI that does not return Python Unicode objects in result sets for string values.

  Warning

  Some database backends, particularly SQL Server with pyodbc, are known to have undesirable behaviors regarding data that is noted as being of `NVARCHAR` type as opposed to `VARCHAR`, including datatype mismatch errors and non-use of indexes. See the section on `DialectEvents.do_setinputsizes()` for background on working around unicode character issues for backends like SQL Server with pyodbc as well as cx_Oracle.

  See also

  `UnicodeText` - unlengthed textual counterpart to `Unicode`.

  `DialectEvents.do_setinputsizes()`

class sqlalchemy.types.UnicodeText

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Text`

  An unbounded-length Unicode string type.

  See `Unicode` for details on the unicode behavior of this object.

  Like `Unicode`, usage the `UnicodeText` type implies a unicode-capable type being used on the backend, such as `NCLOB`, `NTEXT`.

class sqlalchemy.types.Uuid

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Emulated`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  Represent a database agnostic UUID datatype.

  For backends that have no “native” UUID datatype, the value will make use of `CHAR(32)` and store the UUID as a 32-character alphanumeric hex string.

  For backends which are known to support `UUID` directly or a similar uuid-storing datatype such as SQL Server’s `UNIQUEIDENTIFIER`, a “native” mode enabled by default allows these types will be used on those backends.

  In its default mode of use, the `Uuid` datatype expects Python uuid objects, from the Python uuid module:

      import uuid

      from sqlalchemy import Uuid
      from sqlalchemy import Table, Column, MetaData, String

      metadata_obj = MetaData()

      t = Table(
          "t",
          metadata_obj,
          Column("uuid_data", Uuid, primary_key=True),
          Column("other_data", String),
      )

      with engine.begin() as conn:
          conn.execute(
              t.insert(), {"uuid_data": uuid.uuid4(), "other_data": "some data"}
          )

  To have the `Uuid` datatype work with string-based Uuids (e.g. 32 character hexadecimal strings), pass the `Uuid.as_uuid` parameter with the value `False`.

  Added in version 2.0.

  See also

  `UUID` - represents exactly the `UUID` datatype without any backend-agnostic behaviors.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a `Uuid` type.
  bind_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing bind values.
  coerce_compared_value() | See `TypeEngine.coerce_compared_value()` for a description.
  literal_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.
  operator_classes | Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.
  result_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Uuid.`__init__(as_uuid: bool = True, native_uuid: bool = True)

    Construct a `Uuid` type.

    Parameters:

      - as_uuid=True –

        if True, values will be interpreted as Python uuid objects, converting to/from string via the DBAPI.

        Changed in version 2.0: `as_uuid` now defaults to `True`.

      - native_uuid=True – if True, backends that support either the `UUID` datatype directly, or a UUID-storing value (such as SQL Server’s `UNIQUEIDENTIFIER` will be used by those backends. If False, a `CHAR(32)` datatype will be used for all backends regardless of native support.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Uuid.`bind_processor(dialect: Dialect) → _BindProcessorType[_UUID_RETURN] | None

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.bind_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.bind_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_bind_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Uuid.`coerce_compared_value(op, value)

    See `TypeEngine.coerce_compared_value()` for a description.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Uuid.`literal_processor(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    Returns a callable which will receive a literal Python value as the sole positional argument and will return a string representation to be rendered in a SQL statement.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.literal_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.literal_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_literal_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.Uuid.`operator_classes: ClassVar[OperatorClass] = 10

    Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

    Added in version 2.1.

    See also

    `OperatorClass`

  property python_type

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    By default the generic `object` type is returned.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

    Changed in version 2.1: - The default implementation now returns `object` instead of raising `NotImplementedError`.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.Uuid.`result_processor(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.result_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.result_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_result_value()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      - dialect – Dialect instance in use.

      - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

## SQL Standard and Multiple Vendor “UPPERCASE” Types

This category of types refers to types that are either part of the SQL standard, or are potentially found within a subset of database backends. Unlike the “generic” types, the SQL standard/multi-vendor types have no guarantee of working on all backends, and will only work on those backends that explicitly support them by name. That is, the type will always emit its exact name in DDL with `CREATE TABLE` is issued.

Object Name | Description
--- | ---
ARRAY | Represent a SQL Array type.
BIGINT | The SQL BIGINT type.
BINARY | The SQL BINARY type.
BLOB | The SQL BLOB type.
BOOLEAN | The SQL BOOLEAN type.
CHAR | The SQL CHAR type.
CLOB | The CLOB type.
DATE | The SQL DATE type.
DATETIME | The SQL DATETIME type.
DECIMAL | The SQL DECIMAL type.
DOUBLE | The SQL DOUBLE type.
DOUBLE_PRECISION | The SQL DOUBLE PRECISION type.
FLOAT | The SQL FLOAT type.
INT | alias of `INTEGER`
INTEGER | The SQL INT or INTEGER type.
JSON | Represent a SQL JSON type.
NCHAR | The SQL NCHAR type.
NUMERIC | The SQL NUMERIC type.
NVARCHAR | The SQL NVARCHAR type.
REAL | The SQL REAL type.
SMALLINT | The SQL SMALLINT type.
TEXT | The SQL TEXT type.
TIME | The SQL TIME type.
TIMESTAMP | The SQL TIMESTAMP type.
UUID | Represent the SQL UUID type.
VARBINARY | The SQL VARBINARY type.
VARCHAR | The SQL VARCHAR type.

class sqlalchemy.types.ARRAY

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.SchemaEventTarget`, `sqlalchemy.types.Indexable`, `sqlalchemy.types.Concatenable`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  Represent a SQL Array type.

  Note

  This type serves as the basis for all ARRAY operations. However, currently only the PostgreSQL backend has support for SQL arrays in SQLAlchemy. It is recommended to use the PostgreSQL-specific `sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql.ARRAY` type directly when using ARRAY types with PostgreSQL, as it provides additional operators specific to that backend.

  `ARRAY` is part of the Core in support of various SQL standard functions such as `array_agg` which explicitly involve arrays; however, with the exception of the PostgreSQL backend and possibly some third-party dialects, no other SQLAlchemy built-in dialect has support for this type.

  An `ARRAY` type is constructed given the “type” of element:

      mytable = Table("mytable", metadata, Column("data", ARRAY(Integer)))

  The above type represents an N-dimensional array, meaning a supporting backend such as PostgreSQL will interpret values with any number of dimensions automatically. To produce an INSERT construct that passes in a 1-dimensional array of integers:

      connection.execute(mytable.insert(), {"data": [1, 2, 3]})

  The `ARRAY` type can be constructed given a fixed number of dimensions:

      mytable = Table(
          "mytable", metadata, Column("data", ARRAY(Integer, dimensions=2))
      )

  Sending a number of dimensions is optional, but recommended if the datatype is to represent arrays of more than one dimension. This number is used:

  - When emitting the type declaration itself to the database, e.g. `INTEGER[][]`

  - When translating Python values to database values, and vice versa, e.g. an ARRAY of `Unicode` objects uses this number to efficiently access the string values inside of array structures without resorting to per-row type inspection

  - When used with the Python `getitem` accessor, the number of dimensions serves to define the kind of type that the `[]` operator should return, e.g. for an ARRAY of INTEGER with two dimensions:

        >>> expr = table.c.column[5]  # returns ARRAY(Integer, dimensions=1)
        >>> expr = expr[6]  # returns Integer

  For 1-dimensional arrays, an `ARRAY` instance with no dimension parameter will generally assume single-dimensional behaviors.

  SQL expressions of type `ARRAY` have support for “index” and “slice” behavior. The `[]` operator produces expression constructs which will produce the appropriate SQL, both for SELECT statements:

      select(mytable.c.data[5], mytable.c.data[2:7])

  as well as UPDATE statements when the `Update.values()` method is used:

      mytable.update().values(
          {mytable.c.data[5]: 7, mytable.c.data[2:7]: [1, 2, 3]}
      )

  Indexed access is one-based by default; for zero-based index conversion, set `ARRAY.zero_indexes`.

  The `ARRAY` type also provides for the operators `Comparator.any()` and `Comparator.all()`. The PostgreSQL-specific version of `ARRAY` also provides additional operators.

  Detecting Changes in ARRAY columns when using the ORM

  The `ARRAY` type, when used with the SQLAlchemy ORM, does not detect in-place mutations to the array. In order to detect these, the `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable` extension must be used, using the `MutableList` class:

      from sqlalchemy import ARRAY
      from sqlalchemy.ext.mutable import MutableList

      class SomeOrmClass(Base):
          # ...

          data = Column(MutableList.as_mutable(ARRAY(Integer)))

  This extension will allow “in-place” changes such to the array such as `.append()` to produce events which will be detected by the unit of work. Note that changes to elements inside the array, including subarrays that are mutated in place, are not detected.

  Alternatively, assigning a new array value to an ORM element that replaces the old one will always trigger a change event.

  See also

  `sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql.ARRAY`

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct an `ARRAY`.
  contains() | `ARRAY.contains()` not implemented for the base ARRAY type. Use the dialect-specific ARRAY type.
  any() | Return `other operator ANY (array)` clause.
  all() | Return `other operator ALL (array)` clause.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.ARRAY.`__init__(item_type: _TypeEngineArgument[_T], as_tuple: bool = False, dimensions: int | None = None, zero_indexes: bool = False)

    Construct an `ARRAY`.

    E.g.:

        Column("myarray", ARRAY(Integer))

    Arguments are:

    Parameters:

      - item_type – The data type of items of this array. Note that dimensionality is irrelevant here, so multi-dimensional arrays like `INTEGER[][]`, are constructed as `ARRAY(Integer)`, not as `ARRAY(ARRAY(Integer))` or such.

      - as_tuple=False – Specify whether return results should be converted to tuples from lists. This parameter is not generally needed as a Python list corresponds well to a SQL array.

      - dimensions – if non-None, the ARRAY will assume a fixed number of dimensions. This impacts how the array is declared on the database, how it goes about interpreting Python and result values, as well as how expression behavior in conjunction with the “getitem” operator works. See the description at `ARRAY` for additional detail.

      - zero_indexes=False – when True, index values will be converted between Python zero-based and SQL one-based indexes, e.g. a value of one will be added to all index values before passing to the database.

  class Comparator

    inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`, `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`

    Define comparison operations for `ARRAY`.

    More operators are available on the dialect-specific form of this type. See `Comparator`.

    method `sqlalchemy.types.ARRAY.Comparator.`contains(*arg: Any, **kw: Any) → ColumnElement[bool]

      `ARRAY.contains()` not implemented for the base ARRAY type. Use the dialect-specific ARRAY type.

      See also

      `ARRAY` - PostgreSQL specific version.

    method `sqlalchemy.types.ARRAY.Comparator.`any(other: Any, operator: OperatorType | None = None) → ColumnElement[bool]

      Return `other operator ANY (array)` clause.

      Deprecated since version 2.1: The `Comparator.any()` and `Comparator.all()` methods for arrays are deprecated for removal, along with the PG-specific `Any()` and `All()` functions. See `any_()` and `all_()` functions for modern use.

      Usage of array-specific `Comparator.any()` is as follows:

          from sqlalchemy.sql import operators

          conn.execute(
              select(table.c.data).where(table.c.data.any(7, operator=operators.lt))
          )

      Parameters:

        - other – expression to be compared

        - operator – an operator object from the `sqlalchemy.sql.operators` package, defaults to `eq()`.

      See also

      `any_()`

      `Comparator.all()`

    method `sqlalchemy.types.ARRAY.Comparator.`all(other: Any, operator: OperatorType | None = None) → ColumnElement[bool]

      Return `other operator ALL (array)` clause.

      Deprecated since version 2.1: The `Comparator.any()` and `Comparator.all()` methods for arrays are deprecated for removal, along with the PG-specific `Any()` and `All()` functions. See `any_()` and `all_()` functions for modern use.

      Usage of array-specific `Comparator.all()` is as follows:

          from sqlalchemy.sql import operators

          conn.execute(
              select(table.c.data).where(table.c.data.all(7, operator=operators.lt))
          )

      Parameters:

        - other – expression to be compared

        - operator – an operator object from the `sqlalchemy.sql.operators` package, defaults to `eq()`.

      See also

      `all_()`

      `Comparator.any()`

class sqlalchemy.types.BIGINT

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.BigInteger`

  The SQL BIGINT type.

  See also

  `BigInteger` - documentation for the base type.

class sqlalchemy.types.BINARY

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types._Binary`

  The SQL BINARY type.

class sqlalchemy.types.BLOB

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.LargeBinary`

  The SQL BLOB type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a LargeBinary type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.BLOB.`__init__(length: int | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.LargeBinary.__init__` method of `LargeBinary`

    Construct a LargeBinary type.

    Parameters:

      length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL statements, for those binary types that accept a length, such as the MySQL BLOB type.

class sqlalchemy.types.BOOLEAN

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean`

  The SQL BOOLEAN type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Boolean.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.BOOLEAN.`__init__(create_constraint: bool = False, name: str | None = None, _create_events: bool = True, _adapted_from: SchemaType | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean.__init__` method of `Boolean`

    Construct a Boolean.

    Parameters:

      - create_constraint –

        defaults to False. If the boolean is generated as an int/smallint, also create a CHECK constraint on the table that ensures 1 or 0 as a value.

        Note

        it is strongly recommended that the CHECK constraint have an explicit name in order to support schema-management concerns. This can be established either by setting the `Boolean.name` parameter or by setting up an appropriate naming convention; see Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions for background.

        Changed in version 1.4: - this flag now defaults to False, meaning no CHECK constraint is generated for a non-native enumerated type.

      - name – if a CHECK constraint is generated, specify the name of the constraint.

class sqlalchemy.types.CHAR

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.String`

  The SQL CHAR type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Create a string-holding type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.CHAR.`__init__(length: int | None = None, collation: str | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.String.__init__` method of `String`

    Create a string-holding type.

    Parameters:

      - length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL and CAST expressions. May be safely omitted if no `CREATE TABLE` will be issued. Certain databases may require a `length` for use in DDL, and will raise an exception when the `CREATE TABLE` DDL is issued if a `VARCHAR` with no length is included. Whether the value is interpreted as bytes or characters is database specific.

      - collation –

        Optional, a column-level collation for use in DDL and CAST expressions. Renders using the COLLATE keyword supported by SQLite, MySQL, and PostgreSQL. E.g.:

            >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, select, String
            >>> print(select(cast("some string", String(collation="utf8"))))
            SELECT CAST(:param_1 AS VARCHAR COLLATE utf8) AS anon_1

        Note

        In most cases, the `Unicode` or `UnicodeText` datatypes should be used for a `Column` that expects to store non-ascii data. These datatypes will ensure that the correct types are used on the database.

class sqlalchemy.types.CLOB

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Text`

  The CLOB type.

  This type is found in Oracle Database and Informix.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Create a string-holding type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.CLOB.`__init__(length: int | None = None, collation: str | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.String.__init__` method of `String`

    Create a string-holding type.

    Parameters:

      - length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL and CAST expressions. May be safely omitted if no `CREATE TABLE` will be issued. Certain databases may require a `length` for use in DDL, and will raise an exception when the `CREATE TABLE` DDL is issued if a `VARCHAR` with no length is included. Whether the value is interpreted as bytes or characters is database specific.

      - collation –

        Optional, a column-level collation for use in DDL and CAST expressions. Renders using the COLLATE keyword supported by SQLite, MySQL, and PostgreSQL. E.g.:

            >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, select, String
            >>> print(select(cast("some string", String(collation="utf8"))))
            SELECT CAST(:param_1 AS VARCHAR COLLATE utf8) AS anon_1

        Note

        In most cases, the `Unicode` or `UnicodeText` datatypes should be used for a `Column` that expects to store non-ascii data. These datatypes will ensure that the correct types are used on the database.

class sqlalchemy.types.DATE

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Date`

  The SQL DATE type.

class sqlalchemy.types.DATETIME

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.DateTime`

  The SQL DATETIME type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a new `DateTime`.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.DATETIME.`__init__(timezone: bool = False)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.DateTime.__init__` method of `DateTime`

    Construct a new `DateTime`.

    Parameters:

      timezone – boolean. Indicates that the datetime type should enable timezone support, if available on the base date/time-holding type only. It is recommended to make use of the `TIMESTAMP` datatype directly when using this flag, as some databases include separate generic date/time-holding types distinct from the timezone-capable TIMESTAMP datatype, such as Oracle Database.

class sqlalchemy.types.DECIMAL

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Numeric`

  The SQL DECIMAL type.

  See also

  `Numeric` - documentation for the base type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Numeric.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.DECIMAL.`__init__(precision: int | None = None, scale: int | None = None, decimal_return_scale: int | None = None, asdecimal: bool = True)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.Numeric.__init__` method of `Numeric`

    Construct a Numeric.

    Parameters:

      - precision – the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`.

      - scale – the numeric scale for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`.

      - asdecimal – default True. Return whether or not values should be sent as Python Decimal objects, or as floats. Different DBAPIs send one or the other based on datatypes - the Numeric type will ensure that return values are one or the other across DBAPIs consistently.

      - decimal_return_scale – Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specifying this value will override that length. Types which do include an explicit “.scale” value, such as the base `Numeric` as well as the MySQL float types, will use the value of “.scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

    When using the `Numeric` type, care should be taken to ensure that the asdecimal setting is appropriate for the DBAPI in use - when Numeric applies a conversion from Decimal->float or float-> Decimal, this conversion incurs an additional performance overhead for all result columns received.

    DBAPIs that return Decimal natively (e.g. psycopg2) will have better accuracy and higher performance with a setting of `True`, as the native translation to Decimal reduces the amount of floating- point issues at play, and the Numeric type itself doesn’t need to apply any further conversions. However, another DBAPI which returns floats natively will incur an additional conversion overhead, and is still subject to floating point data loss - in which case `asdecimal=False` will at least remove the extra conversion overhead.

class sqlalchemy.types.DOUBLE

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Double`

  The SQL DOUBLE type.

  Added in version 2.0.

  See also

  `Double` - documentation for the base type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Float.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.DOUBLE.`__init__(precision: int | None = None, asdecimal: bool = False, decimal_return_scale: int | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.Float.__init__` method of `Float`

    Construct a Float.

    Parameters:

      - precision –

        the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`. Backends should attempt to ensure this precision indicates a number of digits for the generic `Float` datatype.

        Note

        For the Oracle Database backend, the `Float.precision` parameter is not accepted when rendering DDL, as Oracle Database does not support float precision specified as a number of decimal places. Instead, use the Oracle Database-specific `FLOAT` datatype and specify the `FLOAT.binary_precision` parameter. This is new in version 2.0 of SQLAlchemy.

        To create a database agnostic `Float` that separately specifies binary precision for Oracle Database, use `TypeEngine.with_variant()` as follows:

            from sqlalchemy import Column
            from sqlalchemy import Float
            from sqlalchemy.dialects import oracle

            Column(
                "float_data",
                Float(5).with_variant(oracle.FLOAT(binary_precision=16), "oracle"),
            )

      - asdecimal – the same flag as that of `Numeric`, but defaults to `False`. Note that setting this flag to `True` results in floating point conversion.

      - decimal_return_scale – Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specifying this value will override that length. Note that the MySQL float types, which do include “scale”, will use “scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

class sqlalchemy.types.DOUBLE_PRECISION

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Double`

  The SQL DOUBLE PRECISION type.

  Added in version 2.0.

  See also

  `Double` - documentation for the base type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Float.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.DOUBLE_PRECISION.`__init__(precision: int | None = None, asdecimal: bool = False, decimal_return_scale: int | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.Float.__init__` method of `Float`

    Construct a Float.

    Parameters:

      - precision –

        the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`. Backends should attempt to ensure this precision indicates a number of digits for the generic `Float` datatype.

        Note

        For the Oracle Database backend, the `Float.precision` parameter is not accepted when rendering DDL, as Oracle Database does not support float precision specified as a number of decimal places. Instead, use the Oracle Database-specific `FLOAT` datatype and specify the `FLOAT.binary_precision` parameter. This is new in version 2.0 of SQLAlchemy.

        To create a database agnostic `Float` that separately specifies binary precision for Oracle Database, use `TypeEngine.with_variant()` as follows:

            from sqlalchemy import Column
            from sqlalchemy import Float
            from sqlalchemy.dialects import oracle

            Column(
                "float_data",
                Float(5).with_variant(oracle.FLOAT(binary_precision=16), "oracle"),
            )

      - asdecimal – the same flag as that of `Numeric`, but defaults to `False`. Note that setting this flag to `True` results in floating point conversion.

      - decimal_return_scale – Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specifying this value will override that length. Note that the MySQL float types, which do include “scale”, will use “scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

class sqlalchemy.types.FLOAT

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Float`

  The SQL FLOAT type.

  See also

  `Float` - documentation for the base type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Float.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.FLOAT.`__init__(precision: int | None = None, asdecimal: bool = False, decimal_return_scale: int | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.Float.__init__` method of `Float`

    Construct a Float.

    Parameters:

      - precision –

        the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`. Backends should attempt to ensure this precision indicates a number of digits for the generic `Float` datatype.

        Note

        For the Oracle Database backend, the `Float.precision` parameter is not accepted when rendering DDL, as Oracle Database does not support float precision specified as a number of decimal places. Instead, use the Oracle Database-specific `FLOAT` datatype and specify the `FLOAT.binary_precision` parameter. This is new in version 2.0 of SQLAlchemy.

        To create a database agnostic `Float` that separately specifies binary precision for Oracle Database, use `TypeEngine.with_variant()` as follows:

            from sqlalchemy import Column
            from sqlalchemy import Float
            from sqlalchemy.dialects import oracle

            Column(
                "float_data",
                Float(5).with_variant(oracle.FLOAT(binary_precision=16), "oracle"),
            )

      - asdecimal – the same flag as that of `Numeric`, but defaults to `False`. Note that setting this flag to `True` results in floating point conversion.

      - decimal_return_scale – Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specifying this value will override that length. Note that the MySQL float types, which do include “scale”, will use “scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

attribute `sqlalchemy.types..`sqlalchemy.types.INT

  alias of `INTEGER`

class sqlalchemy.types.JSON

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Indexable`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  Represent a SQL JSON type.

  Note

  `JSON` is provided as a facade for vendor-specific JSON types. Since it supports JSON SQL operations, it only works on backends that have an actual JSON type, currently:

  - PostgreSQL - see `sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql.JSON` and `sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql.JSONB` for backend-specific notes

  - MySQL - see `sqlalchemy.dialects.mysql.JSON` for backend-specific notes

  - SQLite as of version 3.9 - see `sqlalchemy.dialects.sqlite.JSON` for backend-specific notes

  - Microsoft SQL Server 2016 and later - see `sqlalchemy.dialects.mssql.JSON` for backend-specific notes

  - Oracle 21c and later - see `sqlalchemy.dialects.oracle.JSON` for backend-specific notes

  `JSON` is part of the Core in support of the growing popularity of native JSON datatypes.

  The `JSON` type stores arbitrary JSON format data, e.g.:

      data_table = Table(
          "data_table",
          metadata,
          Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
          Column("data", JSON),
      )

      with engine.connect() as conn:
          conn.execute(
              data_table.insert(), {"data": {"key1": "value1", "key2": "value2"}}
          )

  JSON-Specific Expression Operators

  The `JSON` datatype provides these additional SQL operations:

  - Keyed index operations:

        data_table.c.data["some key"]

  - Integer index operations:

        data_table.c.data[3]

  - Path index operations:

        data_table.c.data[("key_1", "key_2", 5, ..., "key_n")]

  - Data casters for specific JSON element types, subsequent to an index or path operation being invoked:

        data_table.c.data["some key"].as_integer()

  Additional operations may be available from the dialect-specific versions of `JSON`, such as `sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql.JSON` and `sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql.JSONB` which both offer additional PostgreSQL-specific operations.

  Casting JSON Elements to Other Types

  Index operations, i.e. those invoked by calling upon the expression using the Python bracket operator as in `some_column['some key']`, return an expression object whose type defaults to `JSON` by default, so that further JSON-oriented instructions may be called upon the result type. However, it is likely more common that an index operation is expected to return a specific scalar element, such as a string or integer. In order to provide access to these elements in a backend-agnostic way, a series of data casters are provided:

  - `Comparator.as_string()` - return the element as a string

  - `Comparator.as_boolean()` - return the element as a boolean

  - `Comparator.as_float()` - return the element as a float

  - `Comparator.as_integer()` - return the element as an integer

  These data casters are implemented by supporting dialects in order to assure that comparisons to the above types will work as expected, such as:

      # integer comparison
      data_table.c.data["some_integer_key"].as_integer() == 5

      # boolean comparison
      data_table.c.data["some_boolean"].as_boolean() == True

  Note

  The data caster functions are new in version 1.3.11, and supersede the previous documented approaches of using CAST; for reference, this looked like:

      from sqlalchemy import cast, type_coerce
      from sqlalchemy import String, JSON

      cast(data_table.c.data["some_key"], String) == type_coerce(55, JSON)

  The above case now works directly as:

      data_table.c.data["some_key"].as_integer() == 5

  For details on the previous comparison approach within the 1.3.x series, see the documentation for SQLAlchemy 1.2 or the included HTML files in the doc/ directory of the version’s distribution.

  Detecting Changes in JSON columns when using the ORM

  The `JSON` type, when used with the SQLAlchemy ORM, does not detect in-place mutations to the structure. In order to detect these, the `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable` extension must be used, most typically using the `MutableDict` class. This extension will allow “in-place” changes to the datastructure to produce events which will be detected by the unit of work. See the example at `HSTORE` for a simple example involving a dictionary.

  Alternatively, assigning a JSON structure to an ORM element that replaces the old one will always trigger a change event.

  Support for JSON null vs. SQL NULL

  When working with NULL values, the `JSON` type recommends the use of two specific constants in order to differentiate between a column that evaluates to SQL NULL, e.g. no value, vs. the JSON-encoded string of `"null"`. To insert or select against a value that is SQL NULL, use the constant `null()`. This symbol may be passed as a parameter value specifically when using the `JSON` datatype, which contains special logic that interprets this symbol to mean that the column value should be SQL NULL as opposed to JSON `"null"`:

      from sqlalchemy import null

      conn.execute(table.insert(), {"json_value": null()})

  To insert or select against a value that is JSON `"null"`, use the constant `JSON.NULL`:

      conn.execute(table.insert(), {"json_value": JSON.NULL})

  The `JSON` type supports a flag `JSON.none_as_null` which when set to True will result in the Python constant `None` evaluating to the value of SQL NULL, and when set to False results in the Python constant `None` evaluating to the value of JSON `"null"`. The Python value `None` may be used in conjunction with either `JSON.NULL` and `null()` in order to indicate NULL values, but care must be taken as to the value of the `JSON.none_as_null` in these cases.

  Customizing the JSON Serializer

  The JSON serializer and deserializer used by `JSON` defaults to Python’s `json.dumps` and `json.loads` functions; in the case of the psycopg2 dialect, psycopg2 may be using its own custom loader function.

  In order to affect the serializer / deserializer, they are currently configurable at the `create_engine()` level via the `create_engine.json_serializer` and `create_engine.json_deserializer` parameters. For example, to turn off `ensure_ascii`:

      engine = create_engine(
          "sqlite://",
          json_serializer=lambda obj: json.dumps(obj, ensure_ascii=False),
      )

  See also

  `sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql.JSON`

  `sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql.JSONB`

  `sqlalchemy.dialects.mysql.JSON`

  `sqlalchemy.dialects.sqlite.JSON`

  `sqlalchemy.dialects.oracle.JSON`

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  as_boolean() | Consider an indexed value as boolean.
  as_float() | Consider an indexed value as float.
  as_integer() | Consider an indexed value as integer.
  as_json() | Consider an indexed value as JSON.
  as_numeric() | Consider an indexed value as numeric/decimal.
  as_string() | Consider an indexed value as string.
  bind_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing bind values.
  literal_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.
  NULL | Describe the json value of NULL.
  __init__() | Construct a `JSON` type.
  bind_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing bind values.
  comparator_factory | alias of `Comparator`
  hashable | Flag, if False, means values from this type aren’t hashable.
  operator_classes | Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.
  result_processor() | Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

  class Comparator

    inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`, `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`

    Define comparison operations for `JSON`.

    method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.Comparator.`as_boolean()

      Consider an indexed value as boolean.

      This is similar to using `type_coerce`, and will usually not apply a `CAST()`.

      e.g.:

          stmt = select(mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_boolean()).where(
              mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_boolean() == True
          )

    method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.Comparator.`as_float()

      Consider an indexed value as float.

      This is similar to using `type_coerce`, and will usually not apply a `CAST()`.

      e.g.:

          stmt = select(mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_float()).where(
              mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_float() == 29.75
          )

    method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.Comparator.`as_integer()

      Consider an indexed value as integer.

      This is similar to using `type_coerce`, and will usually not apply a `CAST()`.

      e.g.:

          stmt = select(mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_integer()).where(
              mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_integer() == 5
          )

    method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.Comparator.`as_json()

      Consider an indexed value as JSON.

      This is similar to using `type_coerce`, and will usually not apply a `CAST()`.

      e.g.:

          stmt = select(mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_json())

      This is typically the default behavior of indexed elements in any case.

      Note that comparison of full JSON structures may not be supported by all backends.

    method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.Comparator.`as_numeric(precision, scale, asdecimal=True)

      Consider an indexed value as numeric/decimal.

      This is similar to using `type_coerce`, and will usually not apply a `CAST()`.

      e.g.:

          stmt = select(mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_numeric(10, 6)).where(
              mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_numeric(10, 6) == 29.75
          )

      Added in version 1.4.0b2.

    method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.Comparator.`as_string()

      Consider an indexed value as string.

      This is similar to using `type_coerce`, and will usually not apply a `CAST()`.

      e.g.:

          stmt = select(mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_string()).where(
              mytable.c.json_column["some_data"].as_string() == "some string"
          )

  class JSONElementType

    inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

    Common function for index / path elements in a JSON expression.

    method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.JSONElementType.`bind_processor(dialect: Dialect) → _BindProcessorType[Any]

      Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

      Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

      If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

      Tip

      This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.bind_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

      To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.bind_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_bind_param()`.

      See also

      Augmenting Existing Types

      Parameters:

        dialect – Dialect instance in use.

    method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.JSONElementType.`literal_processor(dialect: Dialect) → _LiteralProcessorType[Any]

      Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

      This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

      Returns a callable which will receive a literal Python value as the sole positional argument and will return a string representation to be rendered in a SQL statement.

      Tip

      This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.literal_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

      To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.literal_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_literal_param()`.

      See also

      Augmenting Existing Types

  class JSONIndexType

    inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.JSONElementType`

    Placeholder for the datatype of a JSON index value.

    This allows execution-time processing of JSON index values for special syntaxes.

  class JSONIntIndexType

    inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.JSONIndexType`

    Placeholder for the datatype of a JSON index value.

    This allows execution-time processing of JSON index values for special syntaxes.

  class JSONPathType

    inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.JSONElementType`

    Placeholder type for JSON path operations.

    This allows execution-time processing of a path-based index value into a specific SQL syntax.

  class JSONStrIndexType

    inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.JSONIndexType`

    Placeholder for the datatype of a JSON index value.

    This allows execution-time processing of JSON index values for special syntaxes.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.`NULL = symbol('JSON_NULL')

    Describe the json value of NULL.

    This value is used to force the JSON value of `"null"` to be used as the value. A value of Python `None` will be recognized either as SQL NULL or JSON `"null"`, based on the setting of the `JSON.none_as_null` flag; the `JSON.NULL` constant can be used to always resolve to JSON `"null"` regardless of this setting. This is in contrast to the `null()` construct, which always resolves to SQL NULL. E.g.:

        from sqlalchemy import null
        from sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql import JSON

        # will *always* insert SQL NULL
        obj1 = MyObject(json_value=null())

        # will *always* insert JSON string "null"
        obj2 = MyObject(json_value=JSON.NULL)

        session.add_all([obj1, obj2])
        session.commit()

    In order to set JSON NULL as a default value for a column, the most transparent method is to use `text()`:

        Table(
            "my_table", metadata, Column("json_data", JSON, default=text("'null'"))
        )

    While it is possible to use `JSON.NULL` in this context, the `JSON.NULL` value will be returned as the value of the column, which in the context of the ORM or other repurposing of the default value, may not be desirable. Using a SQL expression means the value will be re-fetched from the database within the context of retrieving generated defaults.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.`__init__(none_as_null: bool = False)

    Construct a `JSON` type.

    Parameters:

      none_as_null=False –

      if True, persist the value `None` as a SQL NULL value, not the JSON encoding of `null`. Note that when this flag is False, the `null()` construct can still be used to persist a NULL value, which may be passed directly as a parameter value that is specially interpreted by the `JSON` type as SQL NULL:

          from sqlalchemy import null

          conn.execute(table.insert(), {"data": null()})

      Note

      `JSON.none_as_null` does not apply to the values passed to `Column.default` and `Column.server_default`; a value of `None` passed for these parameters means “no default present”.

      Additionally, when used in SQL comparison expressions, the Python value `None` continues to refer to SQL null, and not JSON NULL. The `JSON.none_as_null` flag refers explicitly to the persistence of the value within an INSERT or UPDATE statement. The `JSON.NULL` value should be used for SQL expressions that wish to compare to JSON null.

      See also

      `JSON.NULL`

  method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.`bind_processor(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.bind_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.bind_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_bind_param()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.`comparator_factory

    alias of `Comparator`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.`hashable = False

    Flag, if False, means values from this type aren’t hashable.

    Used by the ORM when uniquing result lists.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.`operator_classes = 2074

    Indicate categories of operators that should be available on this type.

    Added in version 2.1.

    See also

    `OperatorClass`

  method `sqlalchemy.types.JSON.`result_processor(dialect: Dialect, coltype: object) → _ResultProcessorType[_T_JSON] | None

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Tip

    This method is only called relative to a dialect specific type object, which is often private to a dialect in use and is not the same type object as the public facing one, which means it’s not feasible to subclass a `TypeEngine` class in order to provide an alternate `TypeEngine.result_processor()` method, unless subclassing the `UserDefinedType` class explicitly.

    To provide alternate behavior for `TypeEngine.result_processor()`, implement a `TypeDecorator` class and provide an implementation of `TypeDecorator.process_result_value()`.

    See also

    Augmenting Existing Types

    Parameters:

      - dialect – Dialect instance in use.

      - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

  property should_evaluate_none

    Alias of `JSON.none_as_null`

class sqlalchemy.types.INTEGER

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Integer`

  The SQL INT or INTEGER type.

  See also

  `Integer` - documentation for the base type.

class sqlalchemy.types.NCHAR

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Unicode`

  The SQL NCHAR type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Create a string-holding type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.NCHAR.`__init__(length: int | None = None, collation: str | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.String.__init__` method of `String`

    Create a string-holding type.

    Parameters:

      - length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL and CAST expressions. May be safely omitted if no `CREATE TABLE` will be issued. Certain databases may require a `length` for use in DDL, and will raise an exception when the `CREATE TABLE` DDL is issued if a `VARCHAR` with no length is included. Whether the value is interpreted as bytes or characters is database specific.

      - collation –

        Optional, a column-level collation for use in DDL and CAST expressions. Renders using the COLLATE keyword supported by SQLite, MySQL, and PostgreSQL. E.g.:

            >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, select, String
            >>> print(select(cast("some string", String(collation="utf8"))))
            SELECT CAST(:param_1 AS VARCHAR COLLATE utf8) AS anon_1

        Note

        In most cases, the `Unicode` or `UnicodeText` datatypes should be used for a `Column` that expects to store non-ascii data. These datatypes will ensure that the correct types are used on the database.

class sqlalchemy.types.NVARCHAR

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Unicode`

  The SQL NVARCHAR type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Create a string-holding type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.NVARCHAR.`__init__(length: int | None = None, collation: str | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.String.__init__` method of `String`

    Create a string-holding type.

    Parameters:

      - length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL and CAST expressions. May be safely omitted if no `CREATE TABLE` will be issued. Certain databases may require a `length` for use in DDL, and will raise an exception when the `CREATE TABLE` DDL is issued if a `VARCHAR` with no length is included. Whether the value is interpreted as bytes or characters is database specific.

      - collation –

        Optional, a column-level collation for use in DDL and CAST expressions. Renders using the COLLATE keyword supported by SQLite, MySQL, and PostgreSQL. E.g.:

            >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, select, String
            >>> print(select(cast("some string", String(collation="utf8"))))
            SELECT CAST(:param_1 AS VARCHAR COLLATE utf8) AS anon_1

        Note

        In most cases, the `Unicode` or `UnicodeText` datatypes should be used for a `Column` that expects to store non-ascii data. These datatypes will ensure that the correct types are used on the database.

class sqlalchemy.types.NUMERIC

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Numeric`

  The SQL NUMERIC type.

  See also

  `Numeric` - documentation for the base type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Numeric.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.NUMERIC.`__init__(precision: int | None = None, scale: int | None = None, decimal_return_scale: int | None = None, asdecimal: bool = True)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.Numeric.__init__` method of `Numeric`

    Construct a Numeric.

    Parameters:

      - precision – the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`.

      - scale – the numeric scale for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`.

      - asdecimal – default True. Return whether or not values should be sent as Python Decimal objects, or as floats. Different DBAPIs send one or the other based on datatypes - the Numeric type will ensure that return values are one or the other across DBAPIs consistently.

      - decimal_return_scale – Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specifying this value will override that length. Types which do include an explicit “.scale” value, such as the base `Numeric` as well as the MySQL float types, will use the value of “.scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

    When using the `Numeric` type, care should be taken to ensure that the asdecimal setting is appropriate for the DBAPI in use - when Numeric applies a conversion from Decimal->float or float-> Decimal, this conversion incurs an additional performance overhead for all result columns received.

    DBAPIs that return Decimal natively (e.g. psycopg2) will have better accuracy and higher performance with a setting of `True`, as the native translation to Decimal reduces the amount of floating- point issues at play, and the Numeric type itself doesn’t need to apply any further conversions. However, another DBAPI which returns floats natively will incur an additional conversion overhead, and is still subject to floating point data loss - in which case `asdecimal=False` will at least remove the extra conversion overhead.

class sqlalchemy.types.REAL

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Float`

  The SQL REAL type.

  See also

  `Float` - documentation for the base type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a Float.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.REAL.`__init__(precision: int | None = None, asdecimal: bool = False, decimal_return_scale: int | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.Float.__init__` method of `Float`

    Construct a Float.

    Parameters:

      - precision –

        the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`. Backends should attempt to ensure this precision indicates a number of digits for the generic `Float` datatype.

        Note

        For the Oracle Database backend, the `Float.precision` parameter is not accepted when rendering DDL, as Oracle Database does not support float precision specified as a number of decimal places. Instead, use the Oracle Database-specific `FLOAT` datatype and specify the `FLOAT.binary_precision` parameter. This is new in version 2.0 of SQLAlchemy.

        To create a database agnostic `Float` that separately specifies binary precision for Oracle Database, use `TypeEngine.with_variant()` as follows:

            from sqlalchemy import Column
            from sqlalchemy import Float
            from sqlalchemy.dialects import oracle

            Column(
                "float_data",
                Float(5).with_variant(oracle.FLOAT(binary_precision=16), "oracle"),
            )

      - asdecimal – the same flag as that of `Numeric`, but defaults to `False`. Note that setting this flag to `True` results in floating point conversion.

      - decimal_return_scale – Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specifying this value will override that length. Note that the MySQL float types, which do include “scale”, will use “scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

class sqlalchemy.types.SMALLINT

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.SmallInteger`

  The SQL SMALLINT type.

  See also

  `SmallInteger` - documentation for the base type.

class sqlalchemy.types.TEXT

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Text`

  The SQL TEXT type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Create a string-holding type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.TEXT.`__init__(length: int | None = None, collation: str | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.String.__init__` method of `String`

    Create a string-holding type.

    Parameters:

      - length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL and CAST expressions. May be safely omitted if no `CREATE TABLE` will be issued. Certain databases may require a `length` for use in DDL, and will raise an exception when the `CREATE TABLE` DDL is issued if a `VARCHAR` with no length is included. Whether the value is interpreted as bytes or characters is database specific.

      - collation –

        Optional, a column-level collation for use in DDL and CAST expressions. Renders using the COLLATE keyword supported by SQLite, MySQL, and PostgreSQL. E.g.:

            >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, select, String
            >>> print(select(cast("some string", String(collation="utf8"))))
            SELECT CAST(:param_1 AS VARCHAR COLLATE utf8) AS anon_1

        Note

        In most cases, the `Unicode` or `UnicodeText` datatypes should be used for a `Column` that expects to store non-ascii data. These datatypes will ensure that the correct types are used on the database.

class sqlalchemy.types.TIME

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Time`

  The SQL TIME type.

class sqlalchemy.types.TIMESTAMP

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.DateTime`

  The SQL TIMESTAMP type.

  `TIMESTAMP` datatypes have support for timezone storage on some backends, such as PostgreSQL and Oracle Database. Use the `TIMESTAMP.timezone` argument in order to enable “TIMESTAMP WITH TIMEZONE” for these backends.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a new `TIMESTAMP`.
  get_dbapi_type() | Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.TIMESTAMP.`__init__(timezone: bool = False)

    Construct a new `TIMESTAMP`.

    Parameters:

      timezone – boolean. Indicates that the TIMESTAMP type should enable timezone support, if available on the target database. On a per-dialect basis is similar to “TIMESTAMP WITH TIMEZONE”. If the target database does not support timezones, this flag is ignored.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.TIMESTAMP.`get_dbapi_type(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

class sqlalchemy.types.UUID

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.Uuid`, `sqlalchemy.types.NativeForEmulated`

  Represent the SQL UUID type.

  This is the SQL-native form of the `Uuid` database agnostic datatype, and is backwards compatible with the previous PostgreSQL-only version of `UUID`.

  The `UUID` datatype only works on databases that have a SQL datatype named `UUID`. It will not function for backends which don’t have this exact-named type, including SQL Server. For backend-agnostic UUID values with native support, including for SQL Server’s `UNIQUEIDENTIFIER` datatype, use the `Uuid` datatype.

  Added in version 2.0.

  See also

  `Uuid`

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Construct a `UUID` type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.UUID.`__init__(as_uuid: bool = True)

    Construct a `UUID` type.

    Parameters:

      as_uuid=True –

      if True, values will be interpreted as Python uuid objects, converting to/from string via the DBAPI.

      Changed in version 2.0: `as_uuid` now defaults to `True`.

class sqlalchemy.types.VARBINARY

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types._Binary`

  The SQL VARBINARY type.

class sqlalchemy.types.VARCHAR

  inherits from `sqlalchemy.types.String`

  The SQL VARCHAR type.

  Member Name | Description
  --- | ---
  __init__() | Create a string-holding type.

  method `sqlalchemy.types.VARCHAR.`__init__(length: int | None = None, collation: str | None = None)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.types.String.__init__` method of `String`

    Create a string-holding type.

    Parameters:

      - length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL and CAST expressions. May be safely omitted if no `CREATE TABLE` will be issued. Certain databases may require a `length` for use in DDL, and will raise an exception when the `CREATE TABLE` DDL is issued if a `VARCHAR` with no length is included. Whether the value is interpreted as bytes or characters is database specific.

      - collation –

        Optional, a column-level collation for use in DDL and CAST expressions. Renders using the COLLATE keyword supported by SQLite, MySQL, and PostgreSQL. E.g.:

            >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, select, String
            >>> print(select(cast("some string", String(collation="utf8"))))
            SELECT CAST(:param_1 AS VARCHAR COLLATE utf8) AS anon_1

        Note

        In most cases, the `Unicode` or `UnicodeText` datatypes should be used for a `Column` that expects to store non-ascii data. These datatypes will ensure that the correct types are used on the database.