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ECMAScript

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ECMAScript
ParadigmMulti-paradigm: prototype-based, functional, imperative
Designed byBrendan Eich, Ecma International
First appeared1997; 29 years ago (1997)
Typing disciplineweak, dynamic
Websitewww.ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-262/
Major implementations
JavaScript, ActionScript, JScript, QtScript, InScript, Google Apps Script
Influenced by
Self, HyperTalk, AWK, C, CoffeeScript, Perl, Python, Java, Scheme
ECMAScript (file format)
Image
Filename extensions
.es
Internet media type
application/ecmascript
Developed bySun Microsystems,
Ecma International
Initial releaseJune 1997; 28 years ago (1997-06)
Latest release
Edition 16
June 2025; 10 months ago (2025-06)
Type of formatScripting language
WebsiteStandards

ECMAScript (/ˈɛkməskrɪpt/; ES)[1] is the standard for the JavaScript language, intended to ensure the interoperability of web pages across different web browsers.[a][2] It is standardized by Ecma International's TC39 technical committee in the document ECMA-262, with i18n ("Intl") APIs standardized in the document ECMA-402.[3]

ECMAScript is commonly used for client-side scripting on the World Wide Web, and is increasingly being used for server-side scripting and services using runtime environments such as Node.js,[4] Deno[5] and Bun.[6]

The ECMAScript standard does not include any input/output (I/O), such as networking, storage, or graphics facilities. In practice, the web browser or other runtime system provides JavaScript APIs for I/O.

Standards

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Ecma International's Technical Committee 39 publishes multiple standards defining JavaScript, formally known as ECMAScript. These include the language syntax, semantics, libraries, and complementary technologies that support the language.[7][8] The standards are detailed below.

ECMAScript Language Specification (ECMA-262)

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Defines the JavaScript language, formally known as ECMAScript.[9] ECMA-262 only specifies language syntax and the semantics of the core application programming interface (API), such as Array, Function, and globalThis, while valid implementations of JavaScript add their own functionality such as input/output and file system handling.

ECMAScript Internationalization API Specification (ECMA-402)

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Defines the JavaScript i18n (Intl) APIs, and is a complement to ECMA-262.[10] Its functionality has been selected from that of internationalization APIs such as those of the International Components for Unicode (ICU) library of the .NET framework, or of the Java platform.

JSON Data Interchange Syntax (ECMA-404)

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Defines the JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) syntax, a human-readable open standard file format and data interchange format.[11] It was derived from JavaScript, but is a programming language-independent data format.

Source Map Format Specification (ECMA-426)

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Defines the Source map format, used for mapping transpiled source code back to its original sources.[12] The original source map format was created by Joseph Schorr for use by the Closure Inspector minification project, to enable source-level debugging of optimized JavaScript code. In 2024, the source map format was published as an Ecma standard.

History

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The ECMAScript specification is a standardized specification of a scripting language developed by Brendan Eich of Netscape; initially named Mocha, then LiveScript, and finally JavaScript.[13] In December 1995, Sun Microsystems and Netscape announced JavaScript in a press release.[14] In November 1996, Netscape announced a meeting of the Ecma International standards organization to advance the standardization of JavaScript.[15] The first edition of ECMA-262 was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly in June 1997. Several editions of the language standard have been published since then. The name "ECMAScript" was a compromise between the organizations involved in standardizing the language, especially Netscape and Microsoft, whose disputes dominated the early standards sessions. Eich commented that "ECMAScript was always an unwanted trade name that sounds like a skin disease."[16] ECMAScript has been formalized through operational semantics by work at Stanford University and the Department of Computing, Imperial College London for security analysis and standardization.[17] "ECMA" stood for "European Computer Manufacturers Association" until 1994.

Evolution

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Main article: ECMAScript version history

Ecma's Technical Committee 39 (TC39) is responsible for the maintenance of ECMAScript.[18] New proposals to the language go through a staged process, with each stage representing the completeness of the proposal's specification. Consensus must be reached within the committee to advance a proposal to the next stage. Proposals that reach stage 4, the final stage, will be included into the next version of the standard.[19] Since the release of version 6 in June 2015, new major versions have been finalized and published every June.[20]

Features

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Main articles: ECMAScript syntax and JavaScript § Features

The ECMAScript language includes structured, dynamic, functional, and prototype-based features.[21]

Imperative and structured

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ECMAScript JavaScript supports C-style structured programming. Previously, JavaScript only supported function scoping using the keyword var, but ECMAScript 2015 added the keywords let and const, allowing JavaScript to support both block scoping and function scoping. JavaScript supports automatic semicolon insertion, meaning that semicolons that normally terminate a statement in C may be omitted in JavaScript.[22]

Like C-style languages, control flow is done with the while, for, do / while, if / else, and switch statements. Functions are weakly typed and may accept and return any type. Arguments not provided default to undefined.

Weakly typed

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ECMAScript is weakly typed. This means that certain types are assigned implicitly based on the operation being performed. However, there are several quirks in JavaScript's implementation of the conversion of a variable from one type to another.

Dynamic

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ECMAScript is dynamically typed. Thus, a type is associated with a value rather than an expression. ECMAScript supports various ways to test the type of objects, including duck typing.[23]

Transpiling

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Main article: JavaScript § transpilers

Since ES 2015, transpiling JavaScript has become very common. Transpilation is a source-to-source compilation in which newer versions of JavaScript are used, and a transpiler rewrites the source code so that it is supported by older browsers. Usually, transpilers transpile down to ES3 to maintain compatibility with all versions of browsers. The settings to transpile to a specific version can be configured according to need. Transpiling adds an extra step to the build process and is sometimes done to avoid needing polyfills. Polyfills create new features for older environments that lack them. Polyfills do this at runtime in the interpreter, such as the user's browser or on the server. Instead, transpiling rewrites the ECMA code itself during the build phase of development before it reaches the interpreter.

Conformance

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In 2010, Ecma International started developing a standards test for Ecma 262 ECMAScript.[24] Test262 is an ECMAScript conformance test suite that can be used to check how closely a JavaScript implementation follows the ECMAScript Specification. The test suite contains thousands of individual tests, each of which tests some specific requirement(s) of the ECMAScript specification. The development of Test262 is a project of the Ecma Technical Committee 39 (TC39). The testing framework and the individual tests are contributed to Ecma by member organizations of TC39.

Important contributions were made by Google (Sputnik test suite) and Microsoft, who both contributed thousands of tests. The Test262 test suite consisted of 38014 tests as of January 2020.[25] ECMAScript specifications through ES7 are well-supported in major web browsers. The table below shows the conformance rate for current versions of software with respect to the most recent editions of ECMAScript.

Scripting engine conformance
Scripting engine Reference application(s) Conformance[26]
ES5[27] ES6 (2015)[28] ES2016+[29] ES.Next[30][31]
SpiderMonkey Firefox 120 100% 98% 98% 5%
V8 Google Chrome 117, Microsoft Edge 113, Opera 98 100% 98% 98% 5%
JavaScriptCore Safari 17 99% 100% 98% 11%

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ In the past, it was also used as a standard for JScript (Internet Explorer), and ActionScript (Adobe Flash).

References

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  1. ^ Stefanov, Stoyan (2010). JavaScript Patterns. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 5. ISBN 9781449396947. Archived from the original on 2016-06-10. Retrieved 2016-01-12. The core JavaScript programming language [...] is based on the ECMAScript standard, or ES for short.
  2. ^ Wirfs-Brock, Allen; Eich, Brendan (2020-05-02). "JavaScript: The First 20 Years". Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages. 4 (HOPL): 1–189. doi:10.1145/3386327. S2CID 219603695.
  3. ^ "JavaScript technologies overview - JavaScript | MDN". MDN Web Docs. 27 October 2025. Retrieved 25 April 2026.
  4. ^ Wunder, C. "Node.js — ECMAScript 2015 (ES6) and beyond". Node.js.
  5. ^ "Deno joins JavaScript standards effort". 14 December 2021.
  6. ^ https://bun.sh/docs#:~:text=or%2C%20more%20formally%2C-,ECMAScript,-)%20is%20just%20a bun
  7. ^ "TC39". Ecma International. Retrieved 25 April 2026.
  8. ^ "TC39 - Specifying JavaScript". tc39.es.
  9. ^ Guo, Shu-yu (2022-02-14). "ECMAScript 2022 Language Specification". tc39.es. Archived from the original on 2020-05-08. Retrieved 2022-02-14.
  10. ^ "ECMAScript 2027 Internationalization API Specification". tc39.es. April 17, 2026. Archived from the original on April 24, 2026. Retrieved April 26, 2026.
  11. ^ "ECMA-404". Ecma International. Retrieved 25 April 2026.
  12. ^ "Source map format specification". tc39.es. March 14, 2026. Archived from the original on April 24, 2026. Retrieved April 26, 2026.
  13. ^ Krill, Paul (2008-06-23). "JavaScript creator ponders past, future". infoworld.com. InfoWorld. Archived from the original on 2014-09-20. Retrieved 2013-10-31.
  14. ^ "Netscape and Sun announce JavaScript, the Open, Cross-platform Object Scripting Language for Enterprise Networks and the Internet". Netscape.com. Netscape. 1995-12-04. Archived from the original on 2002-06-06. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  15. ^ Press Release (November 15, 1996). "Industry Leaders to Advance Standardization of Netscape's JavaScript at Standards Body Meeting". Netscape.com. Netscape. Archived from the original on 1998-12-03. Retrieved 2013-10-31.
  16. ^ Eich, Brendan (2006-10-03). "Will there be a suggested file suffix for es4?". mozilla.org. Mail.mozilla.org. Archived from the original on 2020-06-21. Retrieved 2021-05-05.
  17. ^ Maffeis, Sergio; Mitchell, John C.; Taly, Ankur (2020-01-03). "An Operational Semantics for JavaScript" (PDF). stanford.edu. Association for Computing Machinery. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-01-03. Retrieved 2020-01-03.
  18. ^ "TC39", Technical Committees, Ecma International, retrieved 2024-08-11
  19. ^ "The TC39 Process", TC39, Ecma International, retrieved 2024-08-11
  20. ^ "ECMAScript, TC39, and the History of JavaScript", ui.dev, retrieved 2024-08-11
  21. ^ "About". ECMAScript. Retrieved 2009-12-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  22. ^ Flanagan, David (17 August 2006). JavaScript: The Definitive Guide (5th ed.). O'Reilly. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-596-10199-2.
  23. ^ "JavaScript data types and data structures – JavaScript | MDN". Developer.mozilla.org. 2017-02-16. Archived from the original on 2017-03-14. Retrieved 2017-02-24.
  24. ^ "ECMAScript Language – test262". Test262.ecmascript.org. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14. Retrieved 2013-10-31.
  25. ^ "tc39/test262". GitHub. January 24, 2020. Archived from the original on October 1, 2019. Retrieved January 29, 2020.
  26. ^ ES5 is the baseline for this test suite. The conformance rate for other editions reflects support for new features only, not a comprehensive score.
  27. ^ "ECMAScript 5 compatibility table". compat-table.github.io. 2024-04-14. Archived from the original on 2024-01-14. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  28. ^ "ECMAScript 6 compatibility table". compat-table.github.io. 2024-04-14. Archived from the original on 2024-04-04. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  29. ^ "ECMAScript 2016+ compatibility table". compat-table.github.io. 2024-04-14. Archived from the original on 2024-01-14. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  30. ^ "ECMAScript Next compatibility table". compat-table.github.io. 2024-04-14. Archived from the original on 2024-01-14. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  31. ^ Composite score that includes new features from ES7 through next edition drafts
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