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Oracle Database

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Oracle AI Database
DeveloperOracle Corporation
Release1979; 47 years ago (1979)
Stable release
26ai[1] Edit this on Wikidata / 14 October 2025; 8 months ago (14 October 2025)
Written inAssembly language, C, C++[2]
TypeMulti-model database management system
LicenseProprietary[3]
Websitewww.oracle.com/database/

Oracle Database (marketed since 2025 as Oracle AI Database, and also referred to as Oracle DBMS or simply Oracle) is a proprietary relational database management system (RDBMS) developed and marketed by Oracle Corporation. First released in 1979, it was among the earliest commercially available databases to use SQL, and as of 2026 it is ranked as the most popular database management system in the DB-Engines ranking.[4]

It is commonly used for online transaction processing (OLTP), data warehousing (DW), and mixed database workloads. As a converged database, it supports multiple data models within a single engine, including relational, JSON document, XML, spatial, graph, text, and AI vector data, all queryable through SQL.[5]

Oracle Database runs on-premises, on Oracle engineered systems such as Oracle Exadata, on Oracle Cloud Infrastructure, and as a managed Autonomous Database service.[6] It is also offered inside Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud, and Amazon Web Services data centers through Oracle's multicloud offerings.[7] The current long-term release is Oracle AI Database 26ai, which was introduced in October 2025.[8]

History

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Larry Ellison and his two friends and former co-workers, Bob Miner and Ed Oates, started a consultancy called Software Development Laboritories (SDL) in 1977, later Oracle Corporation. SDL developed the original version of the Oracle software. The name Oracle comes from the code-name of a Central Intelligence Agency-funded project Ellison has worked on while formerly employed by Ampex;[9] the CIA was Oracle's first customer, and allowed the company to use the code name for the new product.[10][11]

Growth and the internet era

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Oracle Corporation held its initial public offering on March 12, 1986.[12] The company grew rapidly during the 1980s, though a financial setback in 1990 led to its first quarterly loss and significant layoffs before the business recovered.[13] Oracle7, released in 1992, matured the product into a leading enterprise relational database management system, adding persistent PL/SQL stored procedures and triggers, a cost-based query optimizer, and improved administration tools.[13]

Clustering, grid, and cloud computing

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Oracle Database 12c (2013) introduced the multitenant architecture and the In-Memory Column Store, with "c" denoting "cloud". In 2017 Oracle announced Oracle Autonomous Database, a self-managing cloud service, with the first services becoming available in 2018.[14] Beyond the on-premises editions, Oracle Autonomous Database automates provisioning, tuning, patching, and scaling and is offered in data-warehousing and transaction-processing variants.[15]

Architecture

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Image
Architecture of a single-instance Oracle Database, showing the instance and the database files.

Instances and databases

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An Oracle Database system consists of an instance and a database. The instance is a set of memory structures and background processes; the database is the set of files that store data.[16] An instance exists only in memory, and in the multitenant configuration a single instance is associated with one container database.[17] Client programs connect to the database through server processes, established by way of the Oracle Net listener.[16]

Memory

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The principal memory structures are the System Global Area (SGA), shared by all server and background processes, and the Program Global Areas (PGA), which are private to individual processes. The shared pool, database buffer cache, and redo log buffer are components of the SGA, and the optional In-Memory Column Store also resides there. Each PGA holds session information and the work areas used to process SQL statements.[16]

Processes

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Background processes operate on the database files and use the memory structures to do their work. They include the database writer, the log writer, the checkpoint process, the system monitor and process monitor processes, and the archiver processes that copy redo logs for recovery. Server processes handle connections from client programs and run their SQL statements.[16]

Storage structures

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Storage is organized both logically and physically. Logically, data is held in tablespaces composed of segments, extents, and data blocks. Physically, the database comprises data files, control files, and online redo log files, with archived redo logs supporting media recovery. Data files can be placed on conventional file systems or managed by Automatic Storage Management (ASM), a volume manager and file system built into the database.[16]

Multitenant architecture

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Image
Architecture of a single-instance Oracle Database, showing the instance and the database files.

Oracle Database 12c introduced the multitenant architecture, based on container databases (CDBs) and pluggable databases (PDBs). A CDB contains a root container (CDB$ROOT) that holds Oracle-supplied metadata and common users, a seed PDB (PDB$SEED) used as a template for creating new PDBs, and zero or more user-created PDBs. Beginning with Oracle Database 21c, the multitenant container database is the only supported architecture; earlier releases also supported non-container (non-CDB) databases.[17] A PDB appears to a client or application as an independent database, while from the operating system's perspective the CDB is the database. Because PDBs are portable, they can be unplugged from one CDB and plugged into another, supporting database consolidation, cloning, and patching at the container level.[17]

Concurrency and consistency

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Oracle Database provides multiversion read consistency, also known as consistent read. When a transaction modifies data, the database writes the previous values to undo segments, allowing earlier versions of the same data to be read without blocking ongoing writes. In Oracle’s default read-committed isolation mode, each SQL statement sees only committed data, and that data is consistent as of a single point in time when the statement began; newly committed changes from other transactions are not incrementally exposed while the statement is running. Serializable and read-only transactions extend this behavior to transaction-level read consistency, so the transaction sees data as of the time the transaction began. This model allows reads and writes to proceed without blocking one another.[16]

Data models

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Oracle Database is a converged, multi-model database: a single engine natively supports several data models and processes them under one set of transactional guarantees, rather than relying on separate specialized systems. Independent reporting describes the engine as handling relational, JSON document, graph, spatial, and vector data together in one ACID-transactional engine, allowing these models to be combined without moving data between systems.[18] The database-cataloging site DB-Engines likewise classifies Oracle as a multi-model system, listing document, graph, and spatial models alongside its primary relational model.[19]

JSON Relational Duality, introduced in Oracle Database 23ai, lets the same data be accessed and updated either as relational tables or as JSON documents.[20]

High availability and scalability

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Oracle Database includes technologies for high availability, disaster recovery, and scale-out deployment, including Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC), Oracle Data Guard, Oracle GoldenGate, Oracle Flashback, Oracle Sharding, and Oracle Exadata.[21]

High availability and disaster recovery

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Oracle Real Application Clusters (Oracle RAC) is a shared-database clustering technology in which multiple database instances run on separate servers while accessing the same database. RAC was first released as part of Oracle 9.0.1 in 2001.[22]

Oracle Data Guard protects a primary database by maintaining real-time standby copy(s) of the primary database that can be used for disaster recovery and role transitions such as switchover and failover.[23] Active Data Guard extends this approach by allowing read-only workloads to run on a physical standby database while redo changes continue to be applied from the primary database.[23]

Oracle GoldenGate is a replication product used for heterogeneous replication across different database platforms and vendors.[24]

Oracle Flashback technologies provide point-in-time recovery features used to correct user-induced errors, including Flashback Query, Flashback Table, Flashback Drop, and Flashback Database.[25]

Scalability

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Oracle Globally Distributed Database, formerly known as Oracle Sharding, distributes data from a single logical database across multiple independent databases, called shards, so that each shard stores part of the data and can run on separate resources.[26] Oracle AI Database 26ai added RAFT-based replication for globally distributed database deployments, supporting higher availability and automatic failover across shards.[27]

Oracle Exadata is an engineered database system that combines database servers with storage servers. Its Smart Scan storage-offload feature moves some processing, such as predicate filtering and column projection, from the database layer to the storage layer, reducing the volume of data returned to the database servers.[28]

Performance

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Oracle Database includes features intended to improve query and transaction performance on large data sets, including Database In-Memory, partitioning, parallel execution, and compression.

The Database In-Memory feature adds an in-memory column store for selected database objects, allowing analytic queries to use a column-oriented in-memory representation, while the data can be stored in either transactional oriented row format or analytics oriented hybrid-columnar format.[29]

Partitioning divides large tables and indexes into smaller physical pieces that remain a single logical object to applications. Each partition can be managed separately, and query performance can improve when the optimizer eliminates irrelevant partitions, a technique known as partition pruning.[30][31]

For large operations, parallel execution can break a statement or other database task into smaller units that are processed concurrently, allowing the system to use more CPU and input/output resources than a serial execution plan.[32]

Oracle Database also supports several table-compression methods. OLTP compression is intended for active tables, while Hybrid Columnar Compression reorganizes data into compression units and provides query and archive compression modes with higher compression ratios for less frequently updated data.[33][34]

Security

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Oracle Database includes security features for encryption, auditing, and access control. A Common Criteria certification report for Oracle AI Database 26ai identified configurable audit capture, fine-grained access controls, user identification and authentication, and security management among the security functions of the evaluated target.[35]

Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) encrypts database data below the SQL layer, with the database engine encrypting and decrypting data as it reads and writes it from the file system.[36] Data redaction and masking features are used to reduce exposure of sensitive information in query results and applications.[37]

For access control, Virtual Private Database (VPD) dynamically adds predicates to SQL statements against tables or views, allowing row and column restrictions to be enforced by database policies.[38] Oracle Label Security provides label-based row-level access control on protected tables,[39] and Oracle Database Vault adds mandatory access controls such as realms and command rules to restrict access to schemas, objects, and SQL operations, including by highly privileged users.[35]

Oracle Database 23ai added security and privilege-management features including SQL Firewall, schema-level privileges, and enhanced data redaction and masking.[37]

Oracle AI Database 26ai added Deep Data Security, described in third-party coverage as embedding fine-grained authorization directly in the database for workloads such as AI agents, analytics tools, and enterprise applications.[40] Oracle AI Database 26ai received Common Criteria certification at EAL2 augmented by ALC_FLR.3 for a specified evaluated configuration; the certification report noted that Database Vault, Oracle Label Security, external clients, DBaaS deployments, and RAC were outside that evaluated configuration.[35]

AI capabilities

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In 2024, Oracle renamed the long-term Oracle Database 23c release as Oracle Database 23ai, a change independent coverage attributed to the addition of features for AI-oriented application development.[41] Oracle AI Database 26ai later added features aimed at agentic AI use cases, including Select AI Agent, Agent Factory, and integration with Oracle's MCP servers.[42]

AI Vector Search, introduced with the 23c/23ai generation, adds a native vector data type, vector indexes, and vector-search SQL operators. These features allow semantic representations of documents, images, and other unstructured data to be stored as vectors and used for similarity search in Oracle Database.[43][41] Coverage of the 23ai release also described AI Vector Search as supporting retrieval-augmented generation, a technique that combines large language models with private business data to answer natural-language questions.[43]

Select AI is a natural-language interface for querying data in Oracle Database. Independent coverage described the feature as allowing users to query data in natural language and use large language models to generate SQL for those questions.[43][42] In 26ai, Select AI Agent extended this approach into a framework for building, deploying, and managing agents that can use database functions and knowledge context.[42]

Oracle has also added support for the Model Context Protocol (MCP) through an MCP server for Oracle Database, integrated with SQLcl. InfoWorld described the server as allowing developers to build AI agents that can query, retrieve, and reason over enterprise data in Oracle Databases without custom integration layers.[44] The 26ai release also added AI Private Agent Factory, described in third-party coverage as a no-code framework for deploying private, containerized agents in controlled environments.[42]

The database also includes older in-database machine-learning and data-mining capabilities. Predictive Analytics Using Oracle Data Miner describes Oracle Data Miner and Oracle Data Mining as supporting models such as association rules, classification, clustering, regression, and anomaly detection, with models built and used through SQL and PL/SQL packages.[45] A later Apress book describes the Oracle Machine Learning platform as including OML4SQL, OML Notebooks, OML4R, and OML4Py for developing and deploying machine-learning models with Oracle Database and Autonomous Database.[46]

Programming and development

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Oracle Database is programmed and queried primarily through SQL, a language used to define, access, and manipulate relational data.[47] Oracle Database extends SQL with PL/SQL, a procedural language used for server-side program units such as stored procedures, functions, triggers, and packages.[48]

Application logic can also run inside the database in other languages. Oracle8i introduced support for Java stored procedures, allowing Java code to be called from PL/SQL.[49] Oracle Database 21c added in-database JavaScript execution through the Oracle Multilingual Engine, with interfaces to Oracle data types, SQL, and PL/SQL stored procedures.[50]

Applications connect to Oracle Database through client drivers and programming interfaces. Examples include the Oracle Call Interface (OCI), a low-level application programming interface commonly used from C and through higher-level language bindings; Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) for Java applications; ODP.NET for .NET applications; and python-oracledb for Python applications.[51]

For web application development, Oracle REST Data Services (ORDS) provides a REST-oriented access layer for Oracle Database.[52] Oracle Application Express (APEX) is a web-based application development framework built into Oracle Database.[53] In 2024, Oracle added APEX AI Assistant to APEX 24.1, enabling natural-language application creation, SQL assistance, and conversational AI interfaces in applications.[54]

Editions

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Oracle sells its database in a full-featured Enterprise Edition and a lower-cost Standard Edition, and it also offers free developer editions and a managed cloud service.

In September 2015, alongside the Oracle Database 12.1.0.2 release, Oracle replaced its earlier Standard Edition and Standard Edition One with a single Standard Edition 2 (SE2), a lower-cost alternative to Enterprise Edition. SE2 may be licensed only on servers with a maximum of two processor sockets, down from four in the previous Standard Edition, and it limits Real Application Clusters deployments to two single-socket nodes.[55]

Oracle Database Free is a free, developer-focused edition. Oracle released it to developers in early 2023 as Oracle Database 23c Free, and made the underlying release generally available in 2024 as Oracle Database 23ai.[20] It follows Oracle's earlier free Express Edition (XE), an entry-level, resource-limited edition offered for development and evaluation.[56]

Oracle also offers the database as a fully managed cloud service, Oracle Autonomous Database, which automates administration and was introduced for data-warehousing workloads in 2017 before expanding to transaction processing.[15]

Releases and versions

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Oracle products follow a custom release-numbering and -naming convention. The "ai" in the current release, Oracle AI Database 26ai, stands for "Artificial Intelligence". Previous releases (e.g. Oracle Database 19c, 10g, and Oracle9i Database) have used suffixes of "c", "g", and "i" which stand for "Cloud", "Grid", and "Internet" respectively. Prior to the release of Oracle8i Database, no suffixes featured in Oracle AI Database naming conventions. There was no v1 of Oracle AI Database, as Ellison "knew no one would want to buy version 1".[11][57] For some database releases, Oracle also provides an Express Edition (XE) that is free to use.[58][59]

Oracle AI Database release numbering has used the following codes:

Legend:
Unsupported
Supported
Latest version
LTR = Long-Term Release, IR = Innovation Release
Oracle
Database
Version		 Initial
Release
Version		 Initial
Release
Date		 Terminal
Version		 Marquee
Features
Latest version: Oracle AI Database 26ai (LTR) 23.26.0 Starting with Release Update 23.26.0, released in October 2025, Oracle Database 23ai is replaced by Oracle AI Database 26ai.

Applying Release Update 23.26.0 to an existing Oracle Database 23ai deployment converts it to Oracle AI Database 26ai without requiring a separate database upgrade or application re-certification[60]

 AI is natively architected into Oracle AI Database and SQL; unifies all major data models and workloads in a single converged engine; Model Context Protocol (MCP) Server support; Oracle Unified Memory Core for agent context across multiple data types; AI Semantic Models; unified relational, JSON, and graph data model; Private Agent Factory and Select AI Agent; Oracle Vectors on Ice for Apache Iceberg tables; Autonomous AI Lakehouse; Deep Data Security; Private AI Services Container[61]
Supported: Oracle Database 23ai (LTR) 23.4.0 From Release Update 23.26.0 onward, 23ai is replaced by Oracle AI Database 26ai[62]

On May 2, 2024, Oracle Database 23ai[63] was released on Oracle Cloud Infrastructure (OCI) as cloud services, including OCI Exadata Database Service, OCI Exadata Database Cloud@Customer, and OCI Base Database Service. It is also available in Always Free Autonomous Database. Oracle Database 23c (previously released in 2023) was renamed to Oracle Database 23ai (23.4) due to the significant additional engineering effort to add features that bring AI capabilities to the data in Oracle AI Database.

Oracle Database 23c (23.2 and 23.3) was released in 2023: April 2023 (Linux) Oracle Database Free - Developer Release[64] September 2023 Oracle AI Database on Base Database Service[65]

 AI Vector Search[66] (includes new Vector data type, Vector indexes, and Vector SQL operators/functions), JSON Relational Duality,[67] JSON Schema Validation, Transactional Microservices Support, OKafka, Operational Property Graphs, Support for SQL/PGQ, Schema Privileges, Developer Role, In-database SQL Firewall, TLS 1.3 Support, Integration with Azure Active Directory OAuth2, True Cache for mid-tier caching, Readable Per-PDB Standby, Globally Distributed Database with active-active RAFT-based replication, Real-time SQL Plan Management, Priority Transactions, SQL Syntax Simplification, Schema Annotations, Data Use Case Domains, Column Value Lock-free Reservations
Supported: Oracle Database 21c (IR) 21.1.0 December 2020 (cloud)[68]

August 2021 (Linux)[69]

 Blockchain Tables, Multilingual Engine - JavaScript Execution in the Database, Binary JSON Data Type, Per-PDB Data Guard Physical Standby (aka Multitenant Data Guard), Per-PDB GoldenGate Change Capture, Self-Managing In-Memory, In-Memory Hybrid Columnar Scan, In-Memory Vector Joins with SIMD, Sharding Advisor Tool, Property Graph Visualization Studio, Automatic Materialized Views, Automatic Zone Maps, SQL Macros, Gradual Password Rollover
Supported: Oracle Database 19c (LTR) 19.1.0 // 12.2.0.3 February 2019 (Exadata)[70]

April 2019 (Linux)[71]
June 2019 (cloud)

 Active Data Guard DML Redirection, Automatic Index Creation, Real-Time Statistics Maintenance, SQL Queries on Object Stores, In-Memory for IoT Data Streams, Hybrid Partitioned Tables, Automatic SQL Plan Management, SQL Quarantine, Zero-Downtime Grid Infrastructure Patching, Finer-Granularity Supplemental Logging, Automated PDB Relocation
Unsupported: Oracle Database 18c (IR) 18.1.0 // 12.2.0.2 February 2018 (cloud, Exadata)[72]

July 2018 (other)[73]

 18.17.0
January 2022		 Polymorphic Table Functions, Active Directory Integration, Transparent Application Continuity, Approximate Top-N Query Processing, PDB Snapshot Carousel, Online Merging of Partitions and Subpartitions
Unsupported: Oracle Database 12c Release 2 12.2.0.1
March 2017		 August 2016 (cloud)

March 2017 (on-premises)

 12.2.0.1
March 2017		 Native Sharding, Analytic Views[74], Zero Data Loss Recovery Appliance, Exadata Cloud Service, Cloud at CustomerZero Data Loss Recovery Appliance, Exadata Cloud Service, Cloud at Customer
Unsupported: Oracle Database 12c Release 1 12.1.0.1 July 2013[75] 12.1.0.2
July 2014		 Multitenant architecture, In-Memory Column Store, Native JSON, SQL Pattern Matching, Database Cloud Service
Unsupported: Oracle Database 11g Release 2 11.2.0.1 September 2009[76] 11.2.0.4
August 2013		 Edition-Based Redefinition, Data Redaction, Hybrid Columnar Compression, Cluster File System, Golden Gate Replication, Database Appliance
Unsupported: Oracle Database 11g Release 1 11.1.0.6 September 2007 11.1.0.7
September 2008		 Active Data Guard, Secure Files, Exadata
Unsupported: Oracle Database 10g Release 2 10.2.0.1 July 2005[77] 10.2.0.5
April 2010		 Real Application Testing, Database Vault, Online Indexing, Advanced Compression, Data Guard Fast-Start Failover, Transparent Data Encryption
Unsupported: Oracle Database 10g Release 1 10.1.0.2 2003 10.1.0.5
February 2006		 Automated Database Management, Automatic Database Diagnostic Monitor, Grid infrastructure, Oracle ASM, Flashback Database
Unsupported: Oracle9i Database Release 2 9.2.0.1 2002 9.2.0.8
April 2007		 Advanced Queuing, Data Mining, Streams, Logical Standby
Unsupported: Oracle9i Database 9.0.1.0 2001 9.0.1.5
December 2003		 Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC), Oracle XML DB
Unsupported: Oracle8i Database 8.1.5.0 1998 8.1.7.4
August 2000		 Native internet protocols and Java, Virtual Private Database
Unsupported: Oracle8 Database 8.0.3 June 1997 8.0.6 Recovery Manager, Partitioning. First version available for Linux.[78]
Unsupported: Oracle 7.3 7.3.0 February 1996 7.3.4 Object-relational database
Unsupported: Oracle 7.2 7.2.0 May 1995 Shared Server, XA Transactions, Transparent Application Failover
Unsupported: Oracle 7.1 7.1.0 May 1994 Parallel SQL Execution. First version available for Windows NT.[79]
Unsupported: Oracle7 7.0.12 June 1992 Distributed 2-phase commit,[80] PL/SQL stored procedures, triggers, shared cursors, cost-based optimizer
Unsupported: Oracle 6.2 6.2.0 Oracle Parallel Server
Unsupported: Oracle v6 6.0.17 1988 6.0.37 Row-level locking, SMP scalability / performance, storing of undo in database,[80] online backup and recovery, B*Tree indexes, PL/SQL executed from compiled programs (C etc.). First version available for Novell Netware 386.[81]
Unsupported: Oracle v5 5.0.22 (5.1.17) 1985 5.1.22 C2 security certification. Support for distributed database systems[80] and client/server computing. First version available for OS/2. Correlated sub-queries.[82] DOS version supports extended memory.[80]
Unsupported: Oracle v4 4.1.4.0 1984 4.1.4.4 Multiversion read consistency. Halloween Problem solved. Improved concurrency.[80] First version available for MS-DOS[83][84] and IBM mainframe.[80]
Unsupported: Oracle v3 3.1.3 1983 Concurrency control, data distribution, and scalability. Re-written in C for portability to other operating systems, including UNIX.[85][80]
Unsupported: Oracle v2 2.3 1979 First commercially available SQL RDBMS. Basic SQL queries, simple joins[86] and CONNECT BY joins. Atomic role-level SQL statements. Rudimentary concurrency control and database integrity. No query optimizer. Written in assembly language for the PDP-11[80] to run in 128KB of RAM.[87] Ran on PDP-11 and VAX/VMS in PDP-11 compatibility mode.[80]
Legend:
Unsupported
Supported
Latest version
LTR = Long-Term Release, IR = Innovation Release

The Introduction to Oracle AI Database includes a brief history on some of the key innovations introduced with each major release of Oracle AI Database.

See My Oracle Support (MOS) note Release Schedule of Current Database Releases (Doc ID 742060.1) for the current Oracle AI Database releases and their patching end dates.

Patch updates and security alerts

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Prior to Oracle Database 18c, Oracle Corporation released Critical Patch Updates (CPUs) and Security Patch Updates (SPUs)[88] and Security Alerts to close security vulnerabilities. These releases are issued quarterly; some of these releases have updates issued prior to the next quarterly release.

Starting with Oracle Database 18c, Oracle Corporation releases Release Updates (RUs) and Release Update Revisions (RURs).[89] RUs usually contain security, regression (bug), optimizer, and functional fixes which may include feature extensions as well. RURs include all fixes from their corresponding RU but only add new security and regression fixes. However, no new optimizer or functional fixes are included.

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ↑ "Introducing Oracle AI Database 26ai: Next-Gen AI-Native Database for All Your Data".
  2. ↑ Lextrait, Vincent (March 2016). "The Programming Languages Beacon, v16". Retrieved 15 December 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  3. ↑ "OTN Standard License", Technical network, Oracle
  4. ↑ "DB-Engines Ranking". DB-Engines. Retrieved 13 June 2026.
  5. ↑ "Oracle Database Features". Oracle. Retrieved 13 June 2026.
  6. ↑ "Cloud database comparison: AWS, Microsoft, Google and Oracle | TechTarget". Search Data Management. Retrieved 31 May 2026.
  7. ↑ "Multicloud Solutions for Your Business". www.oracle.com. Archived from the original on 27 March 2026. Retrieved 31 May 2026.
  8. ↑ Shimmin, Brad; Kirkpatrick, Keith. "Oracle Positions AI Database 26ai to Lead $1.2 Trillion Market by Bridging the Agentic Reasoning Gap". Futurum. Retrieved 15 June 2026.
  9. ↑ "Welcome to Larryland | The Guardian | guardian.co.uk". www.theguardian.com. Retrieved 15 June 2026.
  10. ↑ "Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) workshop : Oracle - 102746581 - CHM". www.computerhistory.org. Retrieved 15 June 2026.
  11. 1 2 Julie Bort (29 September 2014). "Larry Ellison Is A Billionaire Today Thanks to the CIA". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
  12. ↑ "How Oracle Got Started". Financhill. 6 July 2021. Retrieved 13 June 2026.
  13. 1 2 "The History of Oracle Corporation: 1977–2000". DSP. Retrieved 13 June 2026.
  14. ↑ "Oracle debuts autonomous cloud database for data warehouse workloads". CIO Dive. 2 October 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2026.
  15. 1 2 "Oracle debuts autonomous cloud database for data warehouse workloads". CIO Dive. 2 October 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2026.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kuhn, Darl; Kyte, Thomas (2021). Expert Oracle Database Architecture (4th ed.). Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-7498-9.
  17. 1 2 3 Malcher, Michelle; Kuhn, Darl (2024). Pro Oracle Database 23ai Administration. Apress. ISBN 979-8-8688-1037-4.
  18. ↑ "Oracle converges the AI data stack to give enterprise agents a single version of truth". VentureBeat. 25 March 2026. Retrieved 14 June 2026.
  19. ↑ "Oracle System Properties". DB-Engines. Retrieved 14 June 2026.
  20. 1 2 "Oracle renames Database 23c to 23ai, makes it generally available". InfoWorld. May 2024. Retrieved 14 June 2026.
  21. ↑ Kumar, YV Ravi; Basha, Nassyam; K M, Krishna Kumar; Sharma, Bal Mukund; Kerekovski, Konstantin (2019). Oracle High Availability, Disaster Recovery, and Cloud Services: Explore RAC, Data Guard, and Cloud Technology. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-4351-0. Retrieved 7 July 2026.
  22. ↑ Dyke, Julian; Shaw, Steve (2006). "Introduction to RAC". Pro Oracle Database 10g RAC on Linux. Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4302-0214-1_1. ISBN 978-1-59059-524-4.
  23. 1 2 Baransel, Yunus Emre; Basha, Nassyam (2013). Oracle Data Guard 11gR2 Administration Beginner's Guide. Packt Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84968-790-4. Retrieved 7 July 2026.
  24. ↑ Prusinski, Ben; Phillips, Steve; Chung, Richard (2011). "Heterogeneous Replication". Expert Oracle GoldenGate. Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4302-3567-5_6. ISBN 978-1-4302-3566-8.
  25. ↑ Freeman, Robert G.; Hart, Matthew (2009). "Surviving User Errors: Flashback Technologies". Oracle RMAN 11g Backup and Recovery. McGraw Hill Computing. ISBN 978-0-07-162860-0. Retrieved 7 July 2026.
  26. ↑ Adrian, Charlie (8 January 2025). "Oracle Architecture Overview". Simple Talk. Redgate Software. Retrieved 9 July 2026.
  27. ↑ "Oracle AI Database 26ai for Linux x86-64 On-Premises Platforms Is Now Generally Available". Database Trends and Applications. 4 February 2026. Retrieved 9 July 2026.
  28. ↑ Bach, Martin; Arao, Karl; Colvin, Andy; Hoogland, Frits; Johnson, Randy; Osborne, Kerry; Poder, Tanel (2015). "Offloading / Smart Scan". Expert Oracle Exadata (2nd ed.). Apress. ISBN 978-1-4302-6242-8. Retrieved 7 July 2026.
  29. ↑ Kuhn, Darl; Alapati, Sam R.; Padfield, Bill (2016). "In-Memory Column Store". Expert Oracle Indexing and Access Paths: Maximum Performance for Your Database. Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-1984-3_10. ISBN 978-1-4842-1984-3.
  30. ↑ Kuhn, Darl; Kyte, Thomas (November 2021). "Partitioning". Expert Oracle Database Architecture: Techniques and Solutions for High Performance and Productivity (4th ed.). Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-7499-6_13. ISBN 978-1-4842-7499-6.
  31. ↑ "Partitioning Techniques with Oracle Database 11g". Database Trends and Applications. Retrieved 7 July 2026.
  32. ↑ Kuhn, Darl; Kyte, Thomas (November 2021). "Parallel Execution". Expert Oracle Database Architecture: Techniques and Solutions for High Performance and Productivity (4th ed.). Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-7499-6_14. ISBN 978-1-4842-7499-6.
  33. ↑ Fitzjarrell, David (11 November 2013). "Compression and Advanced Compression in Oracle 11.2". Database Journal. Retrieved 7 July 2026.
  34. ↑ Clarke, John (2013). "Hybrid Columnar Compression". Oracle Exadata Recipes: A Problem-Solution Approach. Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4302-4915-3_16. ISBN 978-1-4302-4914-6.
  35. 1 2 3 Certification Report – Oracle AI Database 26ai (PDF) (Report). Swedish Certification Body for IT Security. 17 December 2025. Retrieved 7 July 2026.
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